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ELEMENTARY 


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ELEMENTARf 
GEOGRAPHY 


BY 

FRANK  M.  McMURRY 

Teachers  College^  Columbia  University 

AND 

A.  E.  PARKINS 

George  Feabody  College  for  Teachers 


Copyright,  1921 

BY 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 


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PREFACE 


The  first  book  in  Geography  has  always  been 
the  least  interesting  Geography  text  placed  in 
the  hands  of  children.  If  possible, 
of  ^e  prob-  however,  it  should  be  the  most  in- 
lem  method  teresting,  for  the  permanent  atti- 
in  Geography  ^^^jg  of  children  toward  the  subject 
chUdren  ^®  largely  determined  by  their  first 

study  of  it. 

How  can  improvement  be  effected?  A  simple 
and  attractive  style  of  presentation,  much  detail 
about  the  customs  of  people,  and  interesting  pic- 
tures have  all  proved  helpful;  but  they  are  inade- 
quate. Modern  education  suggests  a  change  in 
the  selection  and  organization  of  subject  matter 
that  may  be  as  great  an  aid  as  these  other  means 
combined.  That  is  the  centering  of  the  treatment 
in  other  things  than  such  topics  as  location,  sur- 
face features,  climate,  etc.  These  are  colorless, 
so  far  as  young  children  are  concerned;  and  no 
treatment  organized  solely  on  such  a  basis  can 
avoid  being  coldly  informational.  The  proposed 
substitutes  [or  them  are  questions  or  problems 
within  the  field  of  Geography  tnat  are  suggested 
by  the  nature  and  interests  of  children.  In  the 
one  case  the  child  is  subordinated  to  the  subject; 
in  the  other,  the  subject  is  subordinated  to  the 
child.  The  two  points  of  view  are  as  wide  apart  as 
the  poles,  and  their  varying  influence  in  the  prep- 
aration of  a  text  is  constant. 

This  text  has  been  prepared  from  the  view- 
point of  the  child's  interests.  Each  section  deals 
with  questions  that  are  interesting  to  young 
people.  The  fact  that  it  is  so  directly  based  on 
children's  interests  and  experiences  gives  more 
than  the  customary  guarantee  that  it  will  prove 
successful. 

Another  means  for  securing  greater  concrete- 
ness  has  been  emphasized.  A  farm  in  one  section 
may  be  typical,  in  appearance  and  method  of  cul- 
tivation, of  thousands  of  other  farms  in  the  United 
States.  Likewise  one  great  city  closely  resem- 
bles others  in  general  appearance  and  leading 


occupations;  and  one  despotic  government  is  like 

others  that  are  despotic.    General  descriptions  of 

these  are  very  likely  to  be  abstract 

and  uninteresting;    but  a  detailed    ^ypg  studies 

description  of  an  actual  example  is    in  connection 

likely  to  prove  highly  interesting,    ^**^  these 

and  if  it  is  typical,  it  can  clearly 

explain  a  whole  class  in  the  most  effective  way. 

For  these  reasons  type  treatments  are  niuiier- 
ous  in  this  book.  For  instance,  note  how,  imder 
the  problem  organization  of  subject  matter.  New 
York  City  is  presented  as  a  tj^e  of  great  cities 
(p.  67) ;  how  a  farm  in  central  Ohio  is  described 
at  length  as  a  representative  of  many  others 
(p.  98);  and  how  the  old  despotic  Russian  gov- 
ernment is  given  a  special  amount  of  space  for  a 
similar  reason  (p.  230) .  The  vividness  of  mental 
pictures  thus  secured  may  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  chief  merits  of  the  text. 

Any  text  that  is  studied  closely  has  a  marked 

effect  on  methods  of  study.    Mere  lists  of  facts 

lead  to  a  more  or  less  thoughtless 

T.,  . .  Influence  of 

memorizmg.     Narrow     questions       ^^  ^^^^  ^^ 

with  brief  answers  have  the  same  children's 
effect.  On  the  other  hand,  a  text  methods  of 
whose  subject  matter  is  organized 
into  units  consisting  each  of  the  solution  of  a 
problem  that  is  worth  while  leads  children  to 
study  by  such  units.  The  presence  of  a  question 
that  has  value  to  them  influences  them  to  exercise 
judgment  in  weighing  the  relative  value  of  de- 
tails. At  the  same  time  their  interest  in  the  ques- 
tion causes  them  to  assimilate  the  data  offered, 
as  well  as  to  take  some  initiative  in  testing  and 
supplementing  those  data.  Thus  the  principal 
elements  of  good  thinking  are  dependent  upon 
the  organization  of  the  facts  about  live  problems; 
and  a  text  that  makes  this  provision  tends  daily 
to  impress  a  model  of  thinking  upon  the  children. 
The  great  importance  of  this  matter  in  a  first 
text  in  Geography  is  evident,  when  it  is  recalled 
that  children's  ba9  habits  of  study  are  a  constant 


m 


54l2ri5 


IV 


PREFACE 


cause  of  complaint  above  the  fifth  grade,  and  that 
the  habits  complained  of  must  have  been  formed 
in  the  grades  preceding. 

The  first  part  of  this  volume  is  devoted  to  an 
introduction  to  some  of  the  fundamental  concep- 
Th  ■  nifi  tions  of  Geography,  because  actual 
cance  of  the  observations  about  the  soil,  rivers, 
introductory  industries,  etc.,  are  the  sole  final 
^  *^  ®^  basis  for  the  comprehension  of  such 

subjects  in  distant  regions.  Almost  every  locaHty 
furnishes  examples  of  more  than  half  of  all  the 
phenomena  that  form  the  subject  matter  of  Geog- 
raphy; and  a  careful  study  of  these,  by  means  of 
excursions  and  class  discussions,  will  give  a  great 
impetus  toward  vivid  picturing  of  distant  con- 
ditions. 

The  text  treats  such  subjects  as  are  common 
to  most  localities;  and  it  is  supplemented  by  the 
suggestions  at  the  end  of  each  section,  which  sug- 
gest additional  study  of  local  features.  Beginning 
Geography  is  very  lacking  unless  children  are  led 
to  form  the  habit  of  scouring  their  home  environ- 
ment in  search  of  geographical  material. 

Since  children  vary  greatly  in  mental  capacity, 

a  text  should  be  flexible  enough  to  adapt  itself  to 

Ti,»  «,«„;c;^«  the  full  ability  of  each  member  of 
The  provision  •' 

for  the  vary-  a  class.  It  is  not  advisable  that  a 
ing  abilities  child  who  has  twice  the  ability  of 
of  children  another  should  race  through  a  book 
twice  as  fast.  He  can  better  remain  with  children 
of  his  own  age  and  interests  and  employ  his  higher 
ability  by  pursuing  a  wider  course  of  study.  He  can 
cover  all  the  problems  assigned  to  his  classmates, 
and  others  in  addition.     In  the  suggestions  found 


at  the  end  of  each  chapter  provision  is  made  for 
the  exceptional  child,  who  can  take  up  as  manyof 
the  questions  there  proposed  as  his  ability  allows. 

The  child  is  not  interested,  nor  is  it  essential 
that  he  should  be,  in  the  origin  and  classification 
of  land  forms.  The  maps  should  in  character  of 
a  simple  way  show  culture  in  rela-  maps  and 
tion  to  latitude,  longitude,  and  alti-  iUustrations 
tude.  The  physical  map  is  therefore  used  as  the 
base  for  the  location  of  countries,  states,  cities, 
railroads,  and  other  works  of  man.  Clearness 
and  simplicity  should  be  the  chief  characteristic  of 
the  maps  in  an  elementary  text.  This  ideal  has 
constantly  been  kept  in  mind  in  the  preparation  of 
the  maps.  Economic  maps,  such  as  are  abundant 
in  the  Advanced  Geography,  have  been  introduced 
sparingly.  Their  over-use  would  multiply  the 
difficulties  of  the  elementary  text  and  result  in 
a  degree  of  "spiral"  treatment  that  is  no  longer 
sanctioned  by  progressive  courses  of  study. 

The  illustrations  in  an  elementary  geography 
should  both  explain  the  text  and  inr  part  some  idea 
of  the  variety  and  beauty  of  the  works  of  Nature 
and  of  Man  in  that  vast  world  of  which  most  chil- 
dren are  destined  to  see  but  I'.ttle  and  to  which  this 
book  may  possibly  be  their  only  introduction. 
Not  only,  therefore,  have  the  half-tones  been 
selected  with  exceptional  care  for  their  instruc- 
tional value:  only  such  photographs  have  been 
used  as  could  be  reproduced  faithfully  without 
disfigurement  by  the  artist's  brush.  Our  ideal 
has  been  a  moderate  number  of  large,  vivid  photo- 
graphic reproductions  rather  than  an  excessive 
number  of  small,  diagrammatic  cuts. 

F.  M.  McMuRRY 
A.  E.  Parkins 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


SECTION 
I. 


II. 
III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 


PART  I.    WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 

The  Greatest  Occupation  in  the  World — 
Agriculture  ..... 

1.  The  Importance  of  the  Soil 

2.  The  Use  of  the  Soil  for  Agriculture 

3.  Winds  and  Rainfall,  and  their  Effect 

upon  Farming  .  .  .    '      . 

Two  Other  Great  Occupations  —  Manu- 
facturing AND  Trade   .... 

A    FoirPTH    Great    Occupation — Trans- 
portation     ...... 

Government     ...... 

Maps         ....... 

General  Facts  about  the  Earth 
1.    Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth 
Daily  Motion  of  the  Earth 
The  Zones  and  the  Hemispheres  . 
Latitude  and  Longitude 
The  Continents  and  the  Oceans   . 


PART   II.    NORTH  AMERICA 

I.  The  Countries  of  North  America 

II.  The  Northeastern  States 

III.  The  North  Central  States    . 

IV.  The  Southern  States 
V.  The  Western  States 

VI.    Dependencies  of  the  United  States 
VII.    Rkview  of  the  United  States 
VIII.    Other  Countries  of  North  America 

1.  Canada  and  Newfoundland. 

2.  Mexico      ..... 

3.  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies 


PART  III.    SOUTH  AMERICA 


PART  IV.   EUROPE 


11 

16 

20 
27 
32 
35 
35 
37 
39 
47 
47 


I.   General  Facts 
II.   Northwestern  Europe 
1.   The  British  Isles 


55 
67 
84 
101 
120 
143 
149 
156 
156 
161 
168 


177 


195 
197 
197 


SECTION 

PAOB 

2.    France       ..... 

210 

3.    Germany  ..... 

215 

4.    Switzerland        .          ,          . 

219 

5.    Belgium  and  the  Netherlands 

224 

6.    The  Scandinavian  Countries 

227 

III. 

Eastern  Europe       .... 

230 

IV. 

Countries  of  the  Western  Mediterra- 

nean      

237 

1.    Spain  and  Portugal     . 

237 

2.    Italy 

242 

V. 

Countries  of  the  Danube  and  the 

Bal- 

kans 

247 

PART  V.    ASIA 

I.  General  Facts 257 

II.  Southwestern  Asia  .....  259 

III.  Siberia. AND  Central  Asia        .  .  .  264 

IV.  India,  Indo-China,  and  the  Malay  Penin- 

sula       266 

V.   The  Far  East 269 

1.  The  Chinese  RepubUc  .  .  .  269 

2.  The  Japanese  Empire  .         .         .  276 


PART  VI.     AUSTRALIA,   NEW  ZEALAND, 

AND   THE   ISLANDS   OF   THE 

PACIFIC 

■  I.  Australia         ......  283 

II.  New  Zealand 286 

III.  The  East  Indies 287 

IV.  The  Smaller  Islands  of  the  Pacific       .  288 

PART  VII.    AFRICA 291 

PART  VIII.    THE  UNITED  STATES  IN 
RELATION  TO  OTHER  COUNTRIES  303 


Appendix     ........  310 

Index  .........  314 


LIST    OF    COLORED    MAPS 


7^ 


46.    The  World,  in  Hemispheres  .         .         .         .44,45 

58.  North  America,  Physical  Map        ...       56 

59.  North  America,  Political  Map  ...  57 
61.  United  States,  Physical  and  Political  Map  60,  61 
63.  United  States,  PoUtical  Map  .  .  64,  65 
66.    Northeastern    States,  Physical  and   Political 

Map 68,  69 

86.    North  Central  States,  Physical  and  Political 

Map 88,89 

105.    Southern     States,     Physical     and     Political 

Map 108, 109 

121.    Western  States,  Physical  and  PoUtical  Map  128,  129 

174.  South  America,  Physical  Map        .  .  .180 

175.  South  America,  PoHtical  Map        .  .  .     181 

197.  Europe,  Physical  Map  .  .  .  .200 

198.  Europe,  PoUtical  Map  .         .         .         .201 


201.    Northwestern  Europe,  Physical  and  Political 

Map 204,205, 

247.  Countries    of    the    Western    Mediterranean, 

Physical  and  Political  Map         .  240 

248.  Countries  of  the'  Danube  and  the  Balkans, 

Physical  and  Political  Map         .  .  .241 

267.  Asia,  Physical  Map 260 

268.  Asia,  PoUtical  Map 261 

289.  Australia    and    the    Islands    of    the    Pacific, 

Physical  Map 280 

290.  Australia    and    the    Islands    of     the    Pacific, 

PoUtical  Map 281 

302.  Africa,  Physical  Map 292 

303.  Africa,  Political  Map 293 

315.    The    World,    Mercator's  Projection,  showing 

Transportation  Routes        .         .         .       304, 305 


0 


A^ 


1 


vi 


PART  I.    WORLD    GEOGRAPHY 

I.    The  Greatest  Occupation  in  the  World  —  Agriculture 
1.    The  Importance  of  the  Soil 


1.  Our  need 
for  food 


Everybody  has  a  great  many  wants. 

Every  girl  likes  to  have  a  doll,  every  boy 

a  top  and  a  ball,  and  all  people 

Three  things      , . ,  .    , 

that  everyone     like    piCtureS, 

must  have  story-books, 
and  flowers. 
Anyone  could 
name  dozens  of  other 
things  that  he  wants. 

Many  of  these  things 
are  not  very  important; 
in  fact,  no  one  of  us  would 
greatly  suffer  if  he  had  to 
do  without  all  the  things 
named  above.  But  there 
is  one  thing  that  everyone 
must  have,  and  that  is 
food.  We  eat  three  times 
each  day;  and  if  even  one 
meal  is  left  out,  we  begin 
to  feel  weak.  No  one  can 
live  many  days  without 
food. 

Probably  the  two  most 
necessary  things  in  all  the 
world  are  bread  and  milk. 
But  there  are  many  others 
that  approach  them  in  im- 
portance. Make  a  list  of 
the  ten  kinds  of  food  that  you  consider 
most  valuable,  and  compare  it  with  a  hst 
made  by  someone  else.  What  stores  near 
you  sell  food,  and  how  do  they  compare 


2.    Our  need 
for  clothing 
and  shelter 


in  number  with   other  kinds  of  stores? 

In  what  way  does  the  use  of  rooms  in 

your  house  show   that   food   is   a  very 

necessary  thing  for  your 

family? 

While  clothing  is  not  as 
necessary  to  life  as  food, 
it  is  still  very 
important.  In 
hot  countries 
less  clothing  is  worn  than 
here;  but  even  the  sav- 
ages there  wear  some,  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  bet- 
ter civilized  people  there 
dress  much  as  we  do,  ex- 
cept that  the  materials 
used  are  lighter  in  color 
and  in  weight.  In  our  own 
country  people  need  many 
kinds  of  clothing  in  sum- 
mer; and  without  heavy 
wraps  in  winter  outdoor 
work  in  many  places  would 
have  to  stop.  Can  you 
give  examples? 

Shelter  is,  possibly,  as 
important  as  clothing. 
Even  in  hot  countries  peo- 
ple must  have  houses  of  some  sort  to 
protect  them  from  the  sun  and  rain. 
Note  the  kind  shown  in  Fig.  2.  In  our 
country  protection  against  cold  is  very 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


Where  the 
materials  for 
these  three 
things  are 
found 


Fig.  2 

important,  and  for  this  purpose  the 
houses  must  be  tightly  built.  In  addi- 
tion we  must  have  fuel,  such  as  coal 
or  gas  or  wood,  to  keep  us  warm.  Thus 
everybody  must  have  food,  clothing,  and 
shelter. 

Where  are  the  materials  for  these  three 
things  found?  For  example,  take  food 
first.  Bread  is  made  out  of 
flour;  flour  is  made  out  of 
wheat ;  and  wheat  grows  from 
the  soil.  Again,  milk  comes 
from  cows,  and  the  cows  pro- 
duce it  by  eating  grass;  but  the  grass,  like 
the  wheat,  grows  from  the  soil.  In  the 
same  way  trace  back  to  its  beginning  each 
of  the  foods  in  your  list  of  ten  kinds. 
Possibly  all  of  them  come  from  the  soil. 
Yet  there  are  some  common  foods  that  do 
not  depend  on  the  soil.  Can  you  give 
examples? 

Next  consider  clothing.  Many  dresses 
are  made  of  cotton,  and  we  know  that 
cotton  grows  from  the  ground.  Fig.  3 
shows  a  cotton  field.  Much  clothing  is 
made  of  wool,  which  comes  from  sheep. 


But,  again,  the  sheep  are 
able  to  produce  it  by  eating 
grass,  and  thus  they  depend 
on  the  soil  to  grow  it.  Linen 
collars  and  cuffs  and  hand- 
kerchiefs are  made  out  of 
flax,  which  is' a  farm  crop, 
just  as  wheat  is. 

Where  does  the  leather 
for  your  shoes  come  from? 
Find  out,  if  you  do  not 
know.  What  are  ribbons 
and  silk  dresses  made  of, 
and  how  is  the  material  pro- 
duced? Make  a  list  of  the 
different  kinds  of  clothing 
that  you  wear,  and  trace  each  back  to 
its  beginning.  Have  you  named  any- 
thing that  does  not  depend  upon  the 
soil? 

Many  kinds  of  material  are  used  for 
shelter.    In  Fig.  4  you  see  an  Indian  wig- 


Fig.  3 


THE  IMPORTANCE   OF  THE  SOIL 


warn.  Where  must  the  poles  have  come 
from  that  form  the  frame  of  the  tent?  The 
covering  for  such  wigwams  is  often  made 
out  of  the  skins  of  animals.  Can  you 
show  how  the  soil  has  been  necessary  to 
produce  them? 

Look  about  your  home  to  see  where  its 
many  parts  have  come  from.  Where 
were  the  materials  for  the 
floors,  tables,  and  chairs 
produced?  Those  for  the 
rugs  or  carpets?  Where  was 
the  material  for  the  bricks 
in  the  chimney  found,  and 
the  stone  for  the  founda- 
tion? 

Of  all  the  different  mate- 
rials that  you  have  named 
for  food,  clothing,  and  shel- 
ter, how  many  do  not  grow 
from  the  soil,  or  depend 
upon  others  that  grow 
there?  What  statement  can 
you  make,  therefore,  about 
the  importance  of  the  soil 
in  supplying  materials  for  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter? 

So  many  things  come  from  the  soil  that 

a  great  many  persons  are  employed  in 

raising  them.     Some  of  these 

The  number  ,  -n     i  7 

of  persons  people  are  called  gardeners. 
tiiatworkm     Where   have   you   seen   ear- 

the  soil  1  o        /-. 

deners  at  work?  Can  you 
make  a  list  of  things  that  they  raise? 
Others  of  these  people  are  called  ranch- 
men, particularly  when  they  raise  many 
cattle  and  sheep.  Some  are  called  dairy- 
men. Can  you  tell  about  their  work? 
But  men  who  till  the  soil  are  most  com- 
monly called  farmers,  and  the  pieces 
of  land  that  they  cultivate  are  called 
farms. 


While  cities  occupy  a  large  amount 
of  space,  it  is  very  small  compared  with 
the  space  occupied  by  farms.  Also, 
while  our  cities  contain  great  numbers 
of  people,  there  are  as  many  more  that 
live  in  the  country.  In  fact,  farm- 
ing is  the  greatest  occupation  in  the 
world. 


Fig.  4 


©Broun  Bros. 


Where  the 
soil  comes 
from 

1.  What  it  is 
made  of 


Since  the  soil  is  so  important,  it  is  worth 
while  to  study  about  it.  If  you  have  ever 
made  mud  pies,  or  played  in 
the  dirt  in  other  ways,  you 
have,  perhaps,  wondered  what 
the  soil  is  made  of.  It  has 
not  always  been  dirt  or  mud. 
You  know  that  the  wood  in  your  desk 
has  not  always  been  a  part  of  the  desk; 
it  used  to  be  a  part  of  a  tree,  and  has  a 
long  story  to  tell  about  itself  before  it 
was  brought  to  your  school.  So,  also,  the 
soil  has  a  long  story  to  tell  about  itself. 
Let  us  see  what  this  story  is. 

When  mud  dries  upon  your  hands,  and 
you  rub  them  together,  you  can  notice 
an  unpleasant,   gritty  feeling.     This  is 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


caused  by  hard  bits  of  something  in  the 

soil  that  scrape  together.     If  you  rub 

some  of  this  dirt  upon  a  smooth  piece  of 

glass,  you  can  perhaps 

hear  it  scratch  the  glass. 

This  shows   that   these 

little  bits  must  be  very 

hard;  for  if  they  were  not, 

they  could  not  scratch 

anything  so  hard  as  glass. 

They  must  be  even  harder 

than  a  pin,  for  you  cannot 

scratch  glass  with  a  pin. 

It  will  help  you  to  find 
out  what  these  bits  are,  if  you  examine 
some  sandy  soil.  The  grains  of  sand  are 
tiny  bits  of  rock,  large  enough  to  be  seen 
clearly.  When  they  are  rubbed  against 
glass,  they  scratch  it,  because  they  are 
very  hard  and  sharp. 

Sand  is  made  of  rock  that  has  been 
broken  up  into  fine  pieces.  It  is  a  kind  of 
soil,  but  its  bits  are  coarser  than  those  in 
many  other  kinds.  The  soil  that  you  have 
seen,  such  as  that  in  the 
school  yard  or  by  the  side  of 
the  walk  or  in  a  flower-pot, 
was  once  a  part  of  hard  rock. 

Soil  is  made  in  several 
ways,  which  you  may  learn 
How  soil  is      about  later;  but 

made  most     of    it    i^ 

formed  by  the  decay  of 
rock.  You  know  that  the 
stumps  of  trees  and  the 
boards  in  sidewalks,  after  a 
long  time,  become  so  soft 
that  they  fall  to  pieces. 
Perhaps  you  have  called  it 
"rotting,"  but  that  means 
the  same  as  decaying.  Fig.  5 
shows  such  a  stump. 


Other  things,  even  harder  than  wood, 
decay  in  much  the  same  way,  although 
perhaps  more  slowly.  Bright  and  shiny 
nails  decay  until  they  be- 
come a  soft,  yellow  rust. 
Tin  cans  and  iron  pipes 
rust  until  holes  appear  in 
them  and  they  leak. 

You  may  not  have 
thought  that  stones  also 
decay,  but  they  do.  The 
headstones  in  old  grave- 
yards are  often  so  crum- 
bled that  the  letters  can 
scarcely  be  read;  and  sometimes  the 
stones  have  fallen  to  pieces.  The  decay  of 
rock  may  also  be  seen  in  old  stone  build- 
ings, bowlders,  and  rock  cliffs.  Have 
you  ever  noticed  this? 

There  are  several  causes  for  this  decay. 
All  rocks  have  cracks  in  them 
(Fig.    6).     Usually    some    of 
these  cracks  are  so  large  that 
they  can  be  plainly  seen;  but  there  are 


What  causes 
the  decay  of 
rock 


©KtyUone  Vieu  Co.,  Inc. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SOIL 


many  others  so  small  that  they  cannot  be 
seen  without  a  magnifying  glass.  When  it 
rains,  the  water  steals  into  the  cracks,  and 
by  eating  into  and  rotting  the  rock,  this 
water  very  slowly  changes  it  into  a  powder. 

The  water  may  also  freeze  in  the  cracks 
and  pry  the  stone  apart.  Perhaps  you 
have  seen  iron  pipes  or  water  pitchers  that 
have  been  burst  by  water  freezing  in  them. 
This  shows  how  much  the  freezing  water 
expands;  it  will  even  break  rocks  apart. 
Some  of  the  pieces  of  rock  broken  off  in 
this  way  are  very  small,  others  are  large 
(Fig.  6). 

Plants  help  the  water  to  break  up  the 
rock.  Their  hairlike  roots  push  into  the 
cracks  and  remain  there  until  they  grow 
so  large  that  they  pry  off  pieces  of  rock. 

The  earthworms  that  one  often  sees  on 
a  lawn  after  a  heavy  rain  also  help  in 
crumbUng  the  rock.  In  order  to  get  food, 
they  take  soil  into  their  bodies  and  bring 
masses  of  it  to  the  surface,  where  it  is  ex- 
posed. The  holes  they  make  in  the 
ground  also  allow  water  and  air  to  reach 
the  soil  and  rock  beneath. 

Rock  changes  to  soil  most  rapidly  near 
the  surface.  This  is  because  the  rain, 
roots  of  plants,  and  earth- 
rock  is  found  worms  can  reach  it  there  most 
beneath  the  easily.  For  this  reason  the 
deeper  you  dig  into  soil  that  is 
formed  by  the  decay  of  rocks,  the  less 
you  will  find  the  rock  changed  (Fig.  7) ; 
and  no  matter  where  you  live,  if  you  dig 
deep  enough,  you  will  come  to  solid  rock. 

Sometimes  men  may  dig  deep  wells 
without  finding  rock.  But  in  many 
Wh  the  sou  P^^^^^  there  are  only  a  few 
is  of  different  inchcs  of  soil,  and  in  others 
depths  there  is  not  enough  even  to 

hide  the  rock. 


One  reason  why  the  soil  is  deeper  in 
one  place  than  in  another  is  that  some 
kinds  of  rock  decay  much  more  easily 
than  other  kinds.  Another  reason  is 
that  in  some  places  the  rain  washes  the 
bits  away  as  fast  as  the  rocks  crumble. 


^--■^iSS^ 

2^ 

^^SHifflRR 

iSiMiiM^^MH 

g| 

^ 

^{gg^gmggll 

^^^^^^m 

^ 
^ 

■i 

^WPS 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^g 

X 

^^^§ 

FS^^^s!^^??^ 

S 

^^^ 

Fig.  7 

This  may  leave  the  rock  quite  bare  in 
one  place,  and  make  very  deep  soil  in 
places  where  the  water  leaves  the  broken 
bits. 

Having  learned  how  the  soil  is  made, 
let  us  see  how  the  plants  make  use  of  it. 

An    acorn    that    has   been 
planted   in   the   soil   sprouts    HowsoUisof 

.  value  to 

and  sends  up  a  tiny  stem,  plants 
This  grows  taller  and  taller,  i.  The  use  that 
and  sends  out  one  branch  g^^^J"*^*"' 
after  another  until  the  little 
tree  becomes  a  mighty  oak.  What  a  lot 
of  material  has  been  used  to  make  such  a 
tree!    Where  has  it  all  come  from? 

Some  of  it  has  been  taken  out  of  the 
air  by  the  leaves,  and  some  of  it  has  been 
taken  from  the  soil  by  the  roots.  While 
the  stem,  branches,  and  leaves  have  been 
growing  above  ground,  the  roots  have 
been  growing  underground,  where  we  can- 
not see  them.  These  roots  have  spread 
out  in  all  directions  and  have  extended 
deep  into  the  soil,  in  search  of  water 
and  mineral  matter  needed  by  the  tree. 
Dig  up  a  weed,  in  order  to  see  how  its 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


roots  have  pushed  their  way  in  and  out 
through  the  soil. 

Roots  have  no  eyes,  to  be  sure;   but 

they  burrow  about,  and  in  their  own  way 

,   find  what  they  need.     It  is 

2.  The  value  of  ^ 

the  hairlike        not  the  large  or  old  roots,  how- 
ever, that  do  this.     That  is 
the  work  of  the  young  roots,  many  of 
which  are  not  much  larger  than  hairs. 

If  you  dig  up  a  weed,  or  any  other 
plant,  very  carefully,  you  will  see  that  it 
has  a  great  many  such  hairlike  roots.  It 
is  these  that  take  the  materials  from  the 
soil,  while  the  older,  larger  roots  merely 
pass  these  materials  on  to  the  part  of  the 
plant  above  ground.  Every  tree,  every 
blade  of  grass,  every  weed  and  vege- 
table, depends  upon  such  tiny  roots  for 
its  life. 

One  of  the  things  that  roots  seek  in  the 
soil  is  water.  Plants  need  water  as  much 
3.  What  plants  as  you  do;  and  a  plant  in  a 
flower-pot  will  soon  wither 
and  die  if  it  is  given  no  water. 
Try  it,  to  see  for  yourself.  This  is  the 
reason  we  water  our  lawns  during  dry 
weather  in  summer.  Roots  take  other 
substances  from  the  soil,  called  plant  food. 
This  plant  food  is  a  part  of  the  soil  itself, 
and  is  as  necessary  to  plants  as  food  is 
to  you.  It  is  carried,  in  the  sap,  to  all 
parts  of  the  plant  and  used  to  make  stems, 
leaves,  flowers,  fruit,  and  seeds,  as  the 
blood  in  your  body  is  used  to  make  bone 
and  flesh.  Every  blade  of  grass  and  every 
limb  of  a  tree  contains  some  of  this  plant 
food  that  was  once  a  part  of  the  rocks. 
When  a  piece  of  wood  is  burned,  some  of 
this  rock  material  is  left  behind  in  the 
ashes. 

Every  person,  even,  has  some  plant 
food  in  his  body;    your  bones  and  teeth 


take  from  the 
soil 


4.  The  differ- 
ence between 
fertile  and 
sterile  soil 


are  partly  made  of  it.  But  you  did  not 
take  it  directly  from  the  soil;  the  plants 
took  it  for  you,  and  you  received  it  from 
them  in  the  flour  and  other  foods  that  you 
have  eaten. 

In  some  places  the  soil  has  plenty  of 
plant  food  in  it.  To  raise  good  crops  in 
such  soil,  men  have  to  do 
nothing  beyond  plowing, 
planting,  and  hoeing.  Soil  of 
this  kind,  with  plenty  of  plant 
food  in  it,  is  said  to  be  rich,  or  fertile. 

There  is  also  much  soil  that  has  little 
plant  food  in  it;  this  is  said  to  be  poor, 
or  sterile.  One  reason  for  sterile  soil  is 
that  the  rock  from  which  the  soil  has 
come  may  contain  little  plant  food.  On 
that  account  one  farm  may  be  much  more 
sterile  than  another  next  to  it. 

Soil  that  was  once  fertile  may  become 
sterile  because  plants  are  always  taking 
some  of  the  plant  food  out  of  g  how  fertile 
it.    They  must  do  this  in  or-     sou  may  be- 

come  sterile 

der  to  grow.    W  hen  weeds  and 

trees  fall  and  decay  on  the  spot  where  they 

grew,   they  pay  back  what   they  took 

away.     But  if  plants  are  carried  away 

from  the  spot  where  they  grew,  there  is 

danger  that  fertile  soil  may  be  made  quite 

sterile. 

Now  this  often  happens.  Farmers 
send  away  their  wheat  to  make  flour,  and 
take  their  corn,  hay,  and  oats  to  market. 
Indeed,  they  have  to  do  this  in  order  to 
make  a  living.  Some  farmers  have  sent 
their  crops  away  year  after  year,  without 
putting  anything  back  in  the  ground  to 
take  the  place  of  what  was  carried  away. 
The  result  is  that  the  soil  has  become 
really  worn  out,  or  sterile,  and  the 
farmers  are  no  longer  able  to  support 
their  families  on  such  land. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SOIL 


The  wise  farmer  takes  care  to  put  some 
plant  food  back  upon  the  soil,  to  replace 
6  How  this       what   his   crops   have   taken 

danger  can  be       from    it.       Then    he    can    con- 
avoided 

tinue    to    raise    good    crops. 
That  which  he  puts  back  upon  the  soil  is 
called  a  fertilizer,  because  it  keeps  the 
soil   fertile.    Fig.   8   shows 
farmers  spreading  fertihzer 
on  their  land.  People  in  the 
city  also  often  spread  ferti- 
lizer on  their  lawns,  to  feed 
the  grass   and  thus  make 
it  grow. 

Millions  of  dollars  are 
spent  in  the  United  States 
every  year  for  fertilizers. 
If  this  were  not  done,  the 
crops  would  not  be  nearly 
so  valuable.  Then  the 
farmers  would  suffer;  and 
since  we  all  depend  upon 
the  products  which  they 
raise,  we  should  all  suffer.  Therefore, 
what  is  important  to  the  farmer  is  im- 
portant to  everyone. 


1.  Show  how  important  food  is  for 
everybody.  2.  Compare  the  importance  of 
clothing  and  shelter  with  that  Review 
of  food.  3.  Prove  that  nearly  questions 
all  our  food  comes  from  the  soil.  4.  Show 
that  the  same  thing  is  true  of  our  clothing. 
5.  Is  the  same  thing  more  or  less  true  of 


Fig.  8 


©  Keystone  View  Co. ,  Inc. 


In  studying  this  book  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  note  first  the  question  that  is  suggested 
About  how  for  a  section  and  then  read  the 
to  study  entire  answer  without  stop- 

ping. For  example,  on  p.  1  Our  Need 
of  Food  is  the  question  treated,  and  the 
importance  of  food  for  everybody  is  ex- 
plained on  that  page.  That  entire  sec- 
tion may  well  be  read  without  pause,  to 
understand  more  fully  what  it  is  all  about. 
Then  a  second  and  even  a  third  more  care- 
ful reading  may  follow.  When  this  sec- 
tion has  been  finished,  the  next  one,  tell- 
ing about  our  need  of  clothing  and  shelter, 
should  be  studied  in  the  same  way. 


the  materials  for  shelter?  6.  State  some 
facts  about  the  number  of  people  that 
work  in  the  soil.  7.  What  is  the  soil  made 
of?  8.  How  has  it  been  made?  9.  What 
causes  the  decay  of  rock?  10.  Why  is 
solid  rock  found  beneath  the  soil?  1 1 .  Why 
is  the  soil  of  different  depths?  12.  What 
use  do  plants  make  of  the  soil?  13.  Explain 
the  value  of  the  hairlike  roots.  14.  What 
do  plants  take  from  the  soil?  15.  What  is 
the  difference  between  fertile  and  sterile 
soil  ?  1 6 .  How  may  fertile  soil  become  ster- 
ile? 17.  How  can  this  danger  be  avoided? 
1.  Make  a  list  of  products  that  some 
gardener  or  farmer  near  you 

•  •   •  ^     T»/r   1  1-   ;       p       Suggestions 

IS  raismg.  2.  Make  a  list  oi      for  study  at 
the  many  kinds  of  work  that      ^o^ie  aiid 

^  ,  out  of  doors 

you  have  seen  men  doing,  and 

find  how  many  on  the  list  have  to  do 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


with  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  3.  Find 
a  place  where  men  are  digging  a  ditch  or 
a  cellar,  and  see  how  the  dirt  looks  below 
the  surface.  4.  Find  a  bowlder,  cliff,  or 
old  stone  wall  that  is  crumbling  away. 
5.  Collect  several  different  kinds  of  soil. 


6.  Find  out  what  trees  and  vegetables 
grow  best  near  your  home.  7.  Visit  a 
greenhouse  to  find  out  what  kind  of  soil  is 
used  there,  and  what  is  done  to  keep  it 
fertile.  8.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  roots  of 
some  weed  that  has  been  carefully  dug  up. 


2.   The  Use  of  the  Soil  for  Agriculture 


The  slope  of  land  has  much  to  do  with 

its  value  for  farming.    If  it  is  very  level, 

like  a  floor,  the  water  after  a 

heavy  rain  will  stand  upon  it 

in  a   thin   sheet.     This  will 

drown   the   crops   and  prove 

unhealthful  for   both   people 

and  animals. 

In  fields  that  have  no  natural  slope, 

special  arrangements  are  often  made  to 


The  kind  of 
land  suitable 
for  farming 

1.  The  need  of 
slopes  to  make 
good  farm  land 


Fig.  9 


carry  off  the  water.  Many  a  farm  has 
such  a  field  —  a  low,  wet  place,  called  a 
swamp.  Have  you  seen  one?  The  soil 
of  such  a  wet  place  is  generally  very  fer- 


tile, but  it  is  of  little  worth  to  the  farmer 
until  the  water  has  been  drained  off. 

This  is  done  by  digging  ditches  with 
sloping  bottoms,  that  allow  the  water  to 
run  away  to  a  lower  point.     Sometimes 
the  ditches  are  left  open.     More  often 
tiles  are  laid   along  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  forming  a  kind  of  pipe,  and  then 
the  dirt  is  thrown  back.    The  water  finds 
its  way  into  these   pipes  and  thus  dis- 
appears.   Such  drainage  is 
expensive;  but  the  fact  that 
farmers  go  to  such  expense 
shows  how  very  necessary 
slopes  are  for  farm  land. 

The  kind  of  slope  is  an 
important     matter.     Land 
with  steep  slopes 
is  not  well  suited 
to  farming.    One  reason  is 
that  it  is  difficult  to  do  the 
work  of  plowing,  planting, 
and  harvesting  on  a  steep 
hillside.    But   a   more   im- 
portant reason  is  that  the 
rains  wash  away  much  of 
the  soil,  often  leaving  only 
a  rough,  thin  layer  of  dirt 
and  sometimes  even  uncov- 
ering the  rock.   The  crops,  too,  are  in  dan- 
ger of  being  washed  away  by  heavy  rains. 
Land  with  gentle  slopes,  like  that  shown 
in  Fig.  9,  is,  therefore,  the  better  kind  for 


2.  The  kind  of 
slopes  wanted 


Courtesy  of  U.  8.  Depl.  of  Agriculture 


THE  USE  OF  THE  SOIL   FOR   AGRICULTURE 


farming.  The  water  runs  off  from  it  more 
slowly  without  washing  away  the  soil  or 
injuring  crops;  more  of  the  water  soaks 
into  the  soil,  thus  helping  the  growth  of 
the  plants;  and  the  farmer  can  cultivate 
the  ground  more  easily. 

Land  of  this  sort,  with  slopes  so  gentle 
that  it  is  nearly  level  or  slightly  rolling, 
,  ^.    .  is  called  a 

3.  The  impor- 
tance of  valleys    plain.     In 
for  farming 

a  hilly  or 
mountainous  country 
such  plains  are  usually 
the  lowland  between 
the  hills  or  mountains. 
Valley  is  another  name 
given  to  such  lowlands ; 
but  that  term  really 
includes  the  slopes  on 
the  two  sides  as  well 
as  the  low,  level  plains  between  them. 

In  any  small  mountain  valley  one  is 
likely  to  see  a  stream  winding  its  way 
downward  through  the  plain,  carefully 
cultivated  farms  occupying  the  more  level 
land  and  extending  some  distance  up  the 
slope  on  either  side,  and  forests  and  per- 
haps fields  of  snow  higher  up. 

Nearly  every  valley  in  the  better  settled 
portions  of  our  country  has  farms  in  it. 
Such  a  valley  may  not  be  shut  in  by  moun- 
tains or  even  by  high  hills ;  but  it  is  at  least 
shut  in  by  low  ridges.  Thus  there  are  farms 
in  the  Connecticut  Valley,  in  the  Ohio  Val- 
ley, and  in  the  Sacramento  Valley.  If  you 
are  living  in  a  valley,  what  is  its  name? 

Valleys  differ  greatly  in  size.     In  Fig. 

4.  The  number     ^^  yOU  SCC  twO  HVCrS  flowing 

of  farms  in  a      into  the  oceau.    On  both  sides 

valley 

of  each  is  a  dotted  line  run- 
ning nearly  parallel  with  the  river  and 
marked    "divide."     That    means    that 


Fig.  10 


water  falling  on  one  side  of  the  line  flows 
away  in  one  direction,  while  that  falling 
on  the  other  side  goes  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Thus  the  rain  is  parted  or 
divided  along  that  line,  just  as  it  is  when 
it  falls  on  a  roof. 

The  line  along  which  the  water  is 
parted  is  called  a  divide  or  watershed,  and 
marks  the  boundary  of 
the  valley  on  one  side. 
Trace  the  divides  in 
Fig.  10. 

The  distance  across 
a  valley  from  one  di- 
vide to  the  other  may 
not  be  more  than  a  half 
mile,  and  the  stream 
finding  its  way  along 
its  lowest  part  may  not 
be  a  dozen  miles  long. 
Such  a  valley  may  be  very  small  and  con- 
tain no  more  than  a  dozen  farms.  Many 
valleys,  however,  are  much  smaller  than 
that.  There  may  be  some  near  your 
school  so  narrow  that  you  could  toss  a 
stone  across  them.  See  if  you  can  find 
one;  and,  if  so,  try  to  trace  its  boundaries. 
Other  valleys  are  several  miles  across, 
and  some  are  far  larger.  Indeed,  there 
are  some  so  great  that  one  could  not 
travel  their  whole  length  even  if  one  were 
to  spend  all  day  and  all  night  upon  a  fast 
train.  Of  course  such  valleys  contain 
many  thousands  of  farms. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  the  land 
is  always  undergoing  change.  People 
sometimes  speak  of  the  "  ever-  -  .,    .u  ,   ^ 

'■  5.  How  the  land 

lasting  hills,"  but  they  are  not  is  always  being 
everlasting.      The    hills    and 
valleys   that   you   have   seen   were   not 
always  here,  and  will  not  remain  forever. 
They  have   been  slowly  made.    Let  us 


I'J 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


see  some  of  the  ways  in  which  this  has 
been  done. 

When  it  rains  shghtly,  the  water  soaks 
into  the  soil  and  disappears;  but  when 
there  is  a  heavy  rain,  not  all  the  water 
can  sink  into  the  ground.  Some  flows 
away.  One  little  stream,  perhaps  less 
than  an  inch  wide,  begins  at  one  point; 
another  joins  it;  soon  several  of  them 
unite;  and  after  a  little  while  a  good- 
sized  brook  or  creek  is  formed  which  in 
turn  flows  into  a  larger  river. 

Have  you  not  noticed  this  flowing 
water  in  the  school  yard,  in  the  roads,  or 
on  the  sides  of  hills?  If  you  have,  you 
have  surely  seen  that  the  water  did  not 
flow  off  without  taking  something  with  it. 
It  was  muddy.  This  means  that  soil 
had  become  mixed  with  the  water  and 
was  being  borne  away  by  it.  Every  heavy 
rain  bears  along  much  soil,  cutting  little 
channels,  washing  out  roads,  and  perhaps 
even  destroying  the  beds  of  railways,  so 
that  trains  must  stop  running  until  re- 
pairs are  made. 

During  such  a  rain  little  channels,  or 
valleys,  are  carved  in  the  soil,  leaving 
tiny  hills  and  ridges  between.  No  doubt 
you  have  seen  these  formed  many  times. 
If  not,  you  can  easily  make  them  by 
pouring  water  from  a  sprinkler  upon  a 
pile  of  loose  dirt. 

There  are  many  heavy  rains  every 
year,  and  in  a  lifetime  their  nuniber  is 
very  large.  During  many  hundreds  of 
years,  then,  the  water  washes  away  an 
enormous  amount  of  soil  and  rock.  This 
soil  the  streams  and  rivers  carry  away 
to  the  sea.  It  is  by  such  very  simple 
means  that  many  valleys  have  been 
formed, .  with  the  hills  between  them. 
It  has  all  been  done  in  much  the  same 


way  that  the  rain  water  cuts  the  tiny 
channels  in  the  soil  of  the  school  yard  or 
the  sand  pile. 

While  all  this  has  been  going  on,  the 
land  in  some  regions  has  been  slowly  ris- 
ing or  sinking,  so  as  to  cause  still  greater 
changes.  Some  of  the  largest  valleys  have 
been  caused  partly  in  this  way. 

How  different  the  surface  of  the  earth 
must  look  now  from  what  it  did  thou- 
sands of  years  ago!  No  doubt  there 
were  hills  and  valleys  in  the  very  begin- 
ning; but  every  year  these  have  been 
slowly  changing,  and  after  many  more 
years  they  will  be  very  different  from 
what  they  are  now. 


1.  Explain  the  importance  of  slopes  for 
farm  land.  2.  What  kind  of  slope  is 
wanted?  3.  What  is  meant  Review 
by  plain  SLXid  by  valley?  Why  questions 
are  farms  generally  located  in  valleys? 
4.  Tell  about  the  number  of  farms  that 
may  be  found  in  a  single  valley.  5.  How 
is  the  land  always  being  changed? 

1.  Find  some  ground  near  your  home 
that  seems  nearly  level.    In  what  direc- 
tion does  it  really  slope?   2. 
Where  is  the  longest  slope  in    for  study  at 
your  neighborhood?     Would    home  and  out 

•^  ®  ^01  doors 

you  call  it  a  part  of  a  plain? 
Why?  3.  Find  out  whether  or  not  there 
are  any  swamps  near  you.  If  so,  tell  how 
you  could  plan  to  drain  one  of  them.  4. 
Why  should  a  farmer  use  tile  arid  fill  up 
a  ditch,  rather  than  leave  it  open?  5. 
Watch  the  water  carrying  off  soil  after 
a  rain.  6.  Show  that  streets  and  roads 
are  so  built  that  they  have  a  watershed. 
Why  is  this  done?  7.  If  you  live  on  a 
farm,  find  out  how  your  father  prevents 
the  rain  from  washing  away  valuable  soil. 


WINDS   AND  RAINFALL,   AND  THEIR   EFFECT  UPON   FARMING 


11 


3.  Winds  and  Rainfall,  and  their  Effect  upon  Farming 


How  water  is 
obtained  for 
farms 

1.  The  need  of 
water  for  plants 


Plants,  as  we  have  seen,  must  have 
water  just  as  people  and  animals  must 

have  it;  without  it  they  soon 

wither  and  die. 

One  purpose  of  their  roots 

is  to  search  about  in  the  soil 

for  water.  Some  plants  in  dry 
countries  protect  themselves  against 
drouth  by  sending  their  roots  down 
twenty  feet  or  more  for  moisture. 

In  the  course  of  a  year  plants  require 
an  enormous  amount  of  water.  In  most 
parts  of  the  United  States,  for  example, 
they  cannot  thrive  with  much  less  than 
thirty  inches  of  rainfall  each  year.  Thirty 
inches  of  rain  per  year  means  a  layer  of 
water  thirty  inches  deep  over  the  land, 
if  all  the  rain  that  fell  within  twelve 
months  were  held.    A  single  acre  in  that 


case  would  require  many  carloads  of 
water;  and  a  few  farms  would  call  for 
more  than  many  a  lake  contains. 

There  is  only  one  place  that  could  sup- 
ply so  much  water,  and  that  is  the  ocean. 
We  can  see  across  most  lakes  ^  ^^^^^  ^^ 
and  can  sail  across  even  the      much  water 

.  comes  from 

largest  m  a  day  or  two;  but 
the  ocean  is  far  larger.  One  could  sail 
upon  it,  in  the  same  direction,  for  many 
days  without  coming  to  land  (Fig.  11). 
Indeed,  the  ocean  is  so  large  that  it 
surrounds  all  the  land  on  which  people 
Uve;  no  matter  in  what  direction  you 
might  travel,  if  you  went  far  enough,  you 
would  come  to  it. 

If  your  home  is  not  near  the  ocean,  you 
might  have  to  make  a  journey  of  one  or 
two,  or  even  three  or  four,  days  to  reach 


Fig.  11 


■y 


12 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


it.  It  might  be  necessary  to  go  up  hills 
and  across  valleys,  to  pass  around  lakes, 
and  possibly  even  to  cross  great  ranges 
of  mountains.  You  would  be  surprised  to 
find  how  much  land  there  is,  and  how 
many  farms,  villages,  towns,  and  cities 


Fig.  12 


©  Ewing  Oalloway 


there  are.  Find  out  how  long  it  would 
take  to  reach  the  ocean  from  your  home. 

Although  there  is  so  much  land,  there 
is  far  more  water.  In  fact,  there  is  nearly 
three  times  as  much  water  as  land  upon 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  ocean  is  so 
very  large  that  the  great  rivers  in  all 
parts  of  the  earth  pour  their  waters  into  it. 
Their  mouths  may  be  thousands  of  miles 
apart,  yet  the  sea  stretches  far  enough  to 
reach  them  all.  It  seems  fortunate  that 
the  ocean  is  so  large,  when  we  see  what  a 
demand  plants  make  for  water,  nearly  all 
of  which  comes  from  the  ocean. 

Some  of  our  farms  are  as  much  as  a 
thousand  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  it 
,  TT    *u       would  be    an   enormous    task 

3.  How  the 

water  reaches     to    SUpply    eVCn     OUC     of     them 

with  water.  How,  then,  are 
they  all  supplied?  That  is  the  work  of 
the  winds. 

We  know  that  winds  drive  sailing  ves- 
sels through  the  water,  and  that  they 


turn  windmills  (Fig.  12).  They  also  carry 
away  smoke,  dust,  and  foul  air  from 
crowded  cities. 

Far  more  important  than  all  such  work 
is  their  task  of  carrying  water.  The  air 
takes  up  water  from  the  ocean  in  the  form 
of  vapor,  which  we  cannot  see,  and  the 
winds  bear  it  about,  sometimes  a  few 
miles,  sometimes  hundreds  and  even 
thousands  of  miles.  The  winds  carry  the 
vapor  in  all  directions,  and  often  hold  it 
for  many  days  before  letting  it  fall. 

It  requires  an  enormous  amount  of 
water  to  keep  the  soil  damp,  the  lakes  full, 
and  the  rivers  flowing;  far,  far  more  is 
needed  than  all  the  wagons,  boats,  and 
trains  in  the  whole  world  could  haul.  But 
the  winds  do  this  work  very  easily,  and 
much  of  the  time  very  quietly.  Thus  it  is 
by  the  help  of  the  winds  that  the  rocks  are 
made  wet  and  changed  to  soil,  that  plants 
are  able  to  grow,  and  that  animals  and 
people  are  furnished  with  water  to  drink. 

What  causes  the  air  to  move,  and  do 
such  mighty  work?      Heat  has  much  to 

do    with    it.         If     you     watch     4.  what  causes 

smoke  in  a  room  where  there  t^®^"^^^^ 
is  a  lighted  lamp,  you  will  see  that  it 
moves  toward  the  lamp,  and  then,  being 
heated,  rises  above  it  (Fig.  13).  In  the 
same  manner  the  air  in  a  room  moves 
toward  a  hot  stove,  and  then,  being 
heated,  rises  above  it. 

The  reason  for  such  movement  of  the 
air  is,  first,  that  air  is  made  lighter  when 
it  is  warmed;  and  second,  that  the  colder 
air  all  around,  being  heavier,  crowds  in 
and  pushes  the  warm,  lighter  air  upward. 
The  warm  air  is  forced  upward  just  as 
a  light  cork  that  is  sunk  in  water  is  forced 
to  the  surface  by  the  heavier  water  all 
about  it. 


WINDS   AND   RAINFALL,   AND  THEIR   EFFECT   UPON   FARMING 


13 


The  movements  of  the  atmosphere  that 
surrounds  the  earth  are  quite  Hke  those 
of  the  air  of  the  heated  room.  If  the  at- 
mosphere is  warmed  in  one  place,  cool, 
heavier  air  pushes  in  and  forces  it  up. 
That  causes  the  air  to  move,  first  toward 
the  warmer  place,  and  then  upward.  The 
air  moving  along  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  is  called  wind. 

For  example,  people  on  the  seashore 
often  enjoy  a  cool  sea  breeze  on  hot  sum- 
mer days.  This  is  because  the  hot  sun 
warms  the  land  more  than  the  water;  then 
the  cooler  air  from  over  the  sea  blows  in 
toward  this  warmer  place. 

Such  differences  in  the  warmth  of  the 
air  are  the  main  cause  of  winds  every- 
where. Winds  that  blow  even  hundreds 
of  miles  in  one  direction  are  caused  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  very  gentle 
draughts  about  a  lamp  or  a  stove.  What 
wonderful  results  follow  from  the  fact 
that  there  are  always  some  places  warmer 
than  others! 

Water  is  always  rising  from  the  surface 
of  the  ocean.  In  fact,  enough  water  to 
_  „    ,.     .     fill  thousands  and  thousands 

5.  How  the  air 

is  able  to  take  of  barrels  is  leaving  the  ocean 
every  second  and  floating 
away  in  the  atmosphere ;  and  at  all  times 
there  is  enough  water  in  the  air  to  fill 
many  large  lakes.  What  causes  so  much 
water  to  rise  into  the  air?  And  why  can 
we  not  see  it  there? 

You  have  no  doubt  watched  a  kettle 
of  water  boil,  and  have  seen  that  "  steam" 
rises  from  it.  Perhaps  you  know,  too, 
that  if  it  boils  long  enough,  all  the  water 
will  boil  away,  leaving  the  kettle  quite 
dry.  All  the  water  in  the  kettle  has  then 
passed  into  the  air,  where  it  cannot  be 
seen. 


The  reason  for  this  is  that  heat  has 
changed  the  water,  which  is  a  liquid, 
into  a  gas,  which,  like  air,  has  no  color 
and  cannot  be  seen.  This  gas  is  called 
water    vapor,    and    is    so    light    that    it 


Fig.  13 

floats  about  in  the  air.  That  explains 
how  the  air  is  able  to  'Hake  up"  water 
and  carry  it  about  without  our  being  able 
to  see  it. 

It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  boil 
water  in  order  to  change  it  to  vapor.  All 
over  the  earth,  wherever  there  is  water, 
vapor  is  rising  into  the  air  every  minute. 
You  can  prove  this  for  yourself  by  noticing 
that  muddy  streets  and  wet  clothes  soon 
become  dry,  even  in  winter.  Or  you  can 
place  a  shallow  pan  of  water  on  a  table 
and  observe,  after  some  days,  how  much 
of  it  has  gone. 

People  say  that -the  water  has  evapo- 
rated, which  means  simply  that  it  has 
changed  to  vapor.  It  is  in  this  way  that 
so  vast  an  amount  of  water  is  always 
rising  from  the  ocean  into  the  atmos- 
phere. 


14 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


Perhaps  after  many  days,  and  after 
traveling  hundreds  of  miles  from  the 
*  im, .  ocean,  the  air  gives  back  some 

6.  What  causes  _       '  »  ^ 

the  winds  to       of  Its  watcr  vapor  in  the  form 

drop  their  water  ,  ^  . 

of  rain.     What  causes  it  to 
act  in  this  manner? 

Have  you  ever  noticed  a  glass,  or  a 
pitcher  of  ice  water,  ''sweat"  on  a  hot 
summer  day?  The  water  that 
collects  on  the  outside  of  a 
glass  of  cold  water  has  not 
leaked  through,  for  there  are 
no  holes  in  the  glass.  What 
has  really  happened  is  that 
the  air  around  the  cold  glass 
has  been  cooled  by  it,  and  this 
has  caused  the  vapor  in  the 
air  to  collect  in  drops  on  the 
cold  surface  (Fig.  14).  Drops 
would  gather,  or  condense,  just 
the  same  on  any  cold  glass, 
even  if  no  water  were  in  it. 

The  window  panes  of  a 
kitchen  are  often  covered  with  drops  of 
water  from  vapor,  which  rises  from  the 
kettles  ancj  is  condensed  in  the  same  way 
as  when  you  breathe  against  a  cold  win- 
dow pane. 

From  these  facts  you  see  that  when  air 
loaded  with  vapor  is  cooled,  some  of  the 
vapor  is  changed  back  to  water.  Heat 
will  cause  water  to  change  into  vapor,  and 
cold  will  change  it  back  again. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  winds 
may  be  cooled.  When  air  is  forced  up- 
ward in  going  over  a  mountain  or  a  high- 
land, it  expands  as  it  rises  into  the  rarer 
air,  and  in  this  expansion  it  is  cooled. 
This  proves  clearly  that  mountains  are  an 
important  help  in  causing  rain.  Indeed, 
the  mountains  are  usually  the  rainiest 
parts  of  any  country. 


Vapor  may  also  be  condensed  into 
clouds  and  rain  when  air  is  forced  upward 
over  a  plain.  This  frequently  happens 
in  summer  when  "bad  spells"  of  weather 
pass  eastward  over  our  country.  On  hot 
summer  days,  the  warm  air  near  the  earth 
often  becomes  so  light  that  it  is  pushed 
high  above  the  earth,  forming  huge  bil- 
lowy clouds.  The  vapor  of 
these  clouds  is  condensed  into 
raindrops.  These  are  the  sum- 
mer thunder-showers,  which 
often  come  on  hot  after- 
noons. Such  days  are  usually 
''muggy";  muggy  air  is  really 
air  with  much  water  vapor 
in  it. 

There  are  several  different 
forms  that  the  vapor  in  the 
air  takes  when  it  ^  t,.    , 

7.  The  forms  in- 

changes  to  water,  to  which  vapor 

_,  ,  is  condensed 

b  or  example,  when 

you  breathe  into  the  air  on  a 
cold,  frosty  morning,  your  breath  forms 
a  little  cloud,  or  fog.  The  cold  air  has 
made  the  vapor  in  your  breath  change 
to  tiny  drops  of  water,  so  small  that  you 
cannot  see  a  single  one,  though  hundreds 
of  them  together  make  a  thin  mist.  You 
have,  no  doubt,  seen  fogs  in  valleys, 
on  lakes,  or  over  the  ocean.  These  are 
always  made  of  tiny  drops  of  water  con- 
densed from  vapor  in  the  air. 

Most  clouds  are  also  made  of  tiny  fog 
and  mist  particles.  These  particles,  as 
described  above,  are  caused  by  the  cooling 
of  the  air.  When  climbing  a  mountain  one 
may  pass  through  such  a  cloud,  and  it  then 
seems  to  be  no  more  than  a  fog  or  a  mist. 
Viewed  from  below,  however,  it  is  seen  to 
be  a  cloud;  and  if  you  go  high  enough, 
you   may  even   climb   above   it.   Then, 


WINDS  AND   RAINFALL,   AND  THEIR  EFFECT   UPON   FARMING 


15 


Fig.  15 


©  Ewing  Galloway 


looking  down  on  its  upper  surface,  you  can 
see  clearly  that  it  is  a  cloud  (Fig.  15). 

The   raindrop,   which   falls   from   the 
clouds,  of  course  is  another  form  of  con- 
densed vapor.    Raindrops  begin  as  tiny 
mist  or  fog  particles,  but 
as  they  grow  in  size  they 
become  so  heavy  that  they 
can  no  longer  float.    They 
must  then  fall  to  the  earth. 

We  have  learned   that 
water  may  be  either  a 
liquid  or  a  gas.    We  know, 
too,  that  it  may  also  be  a  solid,  for  ice  is 
the  solid  form  of  water.     When  vapor 
condenses  at  a  temperature  below  32°,  or 
the  freezing  point,  it  takes  the  solid  form. 
Then  either  snow  or  hail  is  formed  instead 
of  rain.     Have  you  ever  examined  the 


beautiful  snow  crystals,  or  snowflakes  as 
we  call  them  (Fig.  16)? 

Drops  of  water  often  collect  at  night  on 
the  cold  ground,  on  grass,  and  on  leaves. 
This  we  call  dew.    The  dew  gathers  be- 
cause the  ground  and 
plants  cool  quickly  after 
the  sun  sets.  These  in  turn 
chill  the  air  next  to  them, 
until  some  of  the  vapor  in 
it  changes  to  liquid  water. 
If  the  temperature  is  below 
^ig-  ^^  the  freezing  point,  frost  is 

formed  instead  of  dew. 

The  farmer  watches  the  winds  even 
more  closely  than  most  peo-  s.  Meaning  of 
pie  do;  for  the  direction  from  rnThowT'^' 
which    they  blow    tells    him  keep  one 
much  about  the  kind  of  weather  to  expect. 


16 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


You  would  find  it  interesting  to  observe 
this  for  yourself.  If  you  should  keep  a 
record  every  day  of  the  direction  of  the 
wind  and  the  kind  of  weather  it  brings, 
you  would  soon  learn  which  of  your  winds 
cause  rain,  and  which  cause  fair  weather. 
You  may  also  notice  the  clouds,  and 
look  at  the  thermometer  each  day,  to  see 
what  the  temperature  is.  By  this  means 
you  can  learn  something  about  the 
weather  near  your  home.  A  record  of  this 
kind,  which  is  called  a  weather  record, 
may  be  kept  somewhat  as  follows: 


Date 

Time  of  Day 

Direction  of 
Wind 

Kind  of 
Weather 

Temp- 
erature 

March  10 
March  11 

8:00  A.M. 
6:00  P.M. 

Southeast 
Calm 

Cloudy 
Rain 

55° 
60° 

In  preparing  for  recitation  it  is  not 
necessary  to  try  to  remember  the  exact 
About  how       words  of  the  book.     In  fact, 

to  study  j^  -g  ^^^^  ^g^^gj.  ^Q  ^gii  ^]^^^ 

has  been  learned  in  one's  own  words. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  stop  now  and  then 
to  think  over  what  has  been  read,  and  for 
this  purpose  some  stopping  places  are 
better  than  others.  Probably  the  best 
place  in  every  page  or  two  is  found  at  the 
end  of  the  answer  to  each  question  that  is 
suggested  in  the  heading  at  the  side  of 


the  page.  At  this  point,  one  can  look  back 
over  what  one  has  just  read,  or  think  it 
through  without  looking  at  the  book. 
Occasionally  one  should  review  several 
pages  at  a  time. 

1.  In  what  ways  can  you  prove  that 
plants  need  water?  2.  Where  must  the 
water  come  from?  3.  How  Review 
does  the  water  reach  the  land?  questions 
4.  What  causes  wind?  5.  How  is  the 
air  able  to  take  up  water?  6.  What 
causes  the  winds  to  drop  their  water? 

7.  Into  what  forms  is  vapor  condensed? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  a  weather  record, 
and  how  is  one  kept? 

11  What  might  be  the  effect  if  there 
were   much   more  land   and  much  less 
ocean?    2.  In  what  direction     suggestions 
would  you  need  to  go  to  reach     for  extra 
the  ocean  at  the  nearest  point,      ""^^ 
and  how  far  would  you  have  to  travel? 

3.  Why   does   smoke  go  up  chimneys? 

4.  Make  a  drawing  showing  how  a  hot 
stove  causes  a  movement,  or  circulation, 
of  air  in  a  room.  5.  How  many  examples 
of  evaporation  can  you  observe  about 
you?  6.  What  examples  of  the  condensing 
of  vapor  can  you  find?  7.  What  winds 
usually  bring  you  rain?  8.  Where  have 
they  probably  obtained  their  vapor? 


II.    Two  Other  Great  Occupations  —  Manufacturing  and  Trade 


In  the  cold  country  far  to  the  north  of 
us  live  the  Eskimos.  When  they  want 
Theindepend-  anything  they  do  not  think  of 
ence  of  some    going  to  a  store  to  buy  it,  for 

people  in  sup-  i  ,  i  • 

plying  their  such  a  thing  as  a  store  is  un- 
wants  known  to  them.     They  have 

no  money,  because  they  have  no  use  for 
it;  there  is  nothing  that  they  can  buy 
with    it.      They    have    never    seen    an 


1.  The  inde- 
pendence of 
the  Eskimos 


automobile  or  a  railroad  train  or  a 
city;  nor  do  they  know  anything  about 
post  offices  or  the  telephone 
or  the  telegraph. 

How,  then,  do  they  live,  and 
how  can  they  supply  their  wants?  The 
answer  is  very  simple.  Each  man  makes 
or  finds  what  he  has.  If  he  needs  a  house, 
he  builds  it.    If  he  wants  food,  he  catches 


MANUFACTURING   AND  TRADE 


17 


a  fish  or  kills  a  seal.  If  he  needs  clothing, 
he  takes  a  sealskin  and  makes  it.  If  he 
wishes  to  have  a  sledge,  or  a  boat,  he 
makes  that.  Thus,  he  depends  upon 
himself  for  his  food,  clothing,  and  shelter. 
Not  many  hundred  years  ago  there 
were  no  stores  in  our  coun- 
2.  Theinde-      ^r^'    Then,  Uke 

pendence  of  our  the  EskimO, 
early  settlers  ,       , 

every  man  had 
to  depend  largely  or  wholly 
upon  himself  for  his  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter. 

Our  first  white  settlers 
came  from  Europe,  and 
made  their  homes  along  our 
a.  Location  of  eastem  coast 
harms  because    that 

was  the  first  land  they  came 
to  after  crossing  the  Atlan- 
■^;ic  Ocean.  Soon  people 
called  pioneers  began  to  .«ji:^, 

push  into  the  wild  country 
farther  west.  Often  several  famiUes  set- 
tled together,  many  miles  away  from 
other  people;  but  sometimes  a  family 
went  off  alone  and  made  a  home  ten  or 
fifteen  miles  from  the  nearest  neighbor. 
Most  of  the  United  States  was  first  set- 
tled by  such  families  as  these. 

Usually  the  first  thing  they  had  to  do 
was  to  cut  down  trees  in  order  to  make 
h  Kind  of  room  for  a  house  and  garden. 
house  and  fur-  The  house  was  built  of  logs, 
and  mud  was  used  to  stop  up 
the  cracks  (Fig.  17).  The  house  often 
had  no  floor  except  the  earth,  and  only  a 
single  room.  The  beds  were  made  of 
posts  driven  into  the  ground  and  joined 
together  with  cross-pieces.  The  chairs 
were  three-legged  stools,  and  the  table  was 
part  of  a  log  supported  upon  four  legs. 


Wheat  was  raised  for  bread;  and  corn, 
which  often  took  the  place  of  wheat,  was 
made  into  corn  bread.  Tea  c.  Their  food 
was  often  made  from  roots  ""^^''^^'^ 
found  in  the  forest,  and  most  of  the  meat 
was  obtained  by  shooting  wild  game. 


.a:*^«-,.rv" 


Fig.  17 

Many  families  after  a  time  kept  sheep, 
and  the  wool  was  made  into  yarn,  blankets, 
and  cloth.  If  a  boy  needed  a  new  suit  of 
clothes,  his  mother  wove  the  cloth,  cut  it 
out,  and  sewed  the  parts  together.  Such 
a  suit  was  called  homespun.  Or  if  there 
were  no  sheep,  the  clothing  was  some- 
times made  out  of  the  skins  of  animals. 
Many  boys  wore  trousers  made  from 
deerskin,  and  used  moccasins  for  shoes 
when  they  did  not  go  barefoot. 

There  were  no  schools,  and  whatever 
the  children  learned  from  books  was  gen- 
erally taught  by  the  mother. 

rni  , .      ,        .  »  ,      d.  Their  schools 

1  here  was  little  time  for  read- 
ing during  the  day,  and  the  only  light  at 
night  was  that  which  came  from  the  burn- 
ing wood  in  the  great  fireplace.    Ink  was 
made  from  some  colored  root,  such  as 


18 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


brier  root,  and  pens  were  cut  from  the 
quills  of  fowls.  There  were  few  books, 
however,  and  there  was  little  time  for 
reading  or  writing. 

As  a  rule,  each  man  raised  more  of 
some  things,  such  as  wool,  wheat,  or  hogs, 


How  people 
came  to  de- 
pend more 
upon  one 
another 


Fig.  18 

than    his    own    family    needed.     There 
c.  Necessary       Were   other   articles   that  he 

journeys  j^^^^    ^^    j-^^y^    ^\xc\v  aS  pOWdcr, 

sugar,  salt,  and  tea. 

Sometimes  a  pioneer  stayed  at  home 
and  bought  nothing,  or  he  waited  until 
some  trader  came  along  and  then  ex- 
changed skins  for  the  things  that  he 
wanted.  Oftener,  however,  he  made  a 
journey,  once  or  twice  a  year,  to  the 
nearest  town,  which  was  perhaps  a 
hundred  miles  distant.  He  then  took 
with  him  the  products  of  the  farm  and 
exchanged  them  for  such  articles  as  he 
needed. 

These  trips  had  to  be  few,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  distance,  but  because  the 
roads  were  rough  and  muddy.  It  might 
take  several  days  to  haul  a  load  of  grain 
to  town  and  bring  back  the  things  he 
wanted. 


(c)  Ewhifi  Gailowaij 


Our  country  was  settled  so  rapidly  that 
each  family  soon  had  neighbors.  A  num- 
ber of  people  would  build 
their  houses  near  together,  so 
as  to  form  a  little  village, 
and  one  of  them  would  start 
a  general  store. 
Then  the  families  living 
some  distance  away  would 
come  to  this  center  to  trade, 
bringing  their  farm  prod- 
ucts and  the  skins  of  ani- 
mals, and  taking  back  other 
articles. 

As  the  number  of  people 
in  such  a  place  grew  larger, 
each  man  did  fewer  kinds 
of  work.  Perhaps  one  of 
them  built  a  sawmill,  and 
sawed  lumber  for  the  others 
when  they  needed  it.  An- 
other spent  part  of  his  time  at  carpentry 
work  for  his  neighbors.  A  third  built  a 
grist-mill  (Fig.  18),  and  ground  grain 
into  flour.  A  fourth  made  shoes  a  part 
of  the  time,  or  served  as  a  doctor,  or 
taught  school,  along  with  other  work. 

A  few  of  the  men  spent  all  their  time 
at  one  kind  of  work.  For  example,  the 
blacksmith  was  kept  busy  shoeing  horses 
and  repairing  wagons,  while  the  store- 
keeper did  nothing  but  buy  and  sell  goods. 
Now  and  then  the  storekeeper  would  make 
trips  to  the  nearest  city,  to  buy  such 
supplies  as  he  thought  his  neighbors 
would  require,  such  as  matches,  boots, 
shovels,  axes,  cloth,  and  drugs.  These  he 
would  keep  in  his  store  for  sale.  Some- 
times he  received  money  for  them,  but 
more  often  he  took  eggs,  meat,  wool,  and 
grain  for  his  pay.  These  he  sent  to  the 
nearest  large  town  for  sale. 


MANUFACTURING   AND  TRADE 


19 


In  this  way  it  was  no  longer  necessary 
for  each  farmer  himself  to  go  to  the  dis- 
tant town  or  city,  for  he  could  usually 
get  what  he  wanted  from  the  store.  He 
could  also  sell  his  products  to  the  store- 
keeper, and  with  the  money  received  pay 
the  blacksmith,  or  doctor,  or  teacher. 
Thus  each  man  came  to  do  fewer  things 
for  himself,  and  to  depend  more  and 
more  upon  others  for  many  things. 

Each  year  more  people  came  to  this 

country,   and   the   villages   grew   to   be 

towns  and  cities,  with  many 

Extent  of  our  ..,  i      /•      .       •  rtM. 

dependence      miUs    and    lactories.       inen 
upon  one  an-    people  in  our  couutry  began 

other  now  , .  i         mi     j.  • 

to  live  as  we  now  do.  i  nat  is, 
not  a  few  men  only,  but  every  man  began 
to  do  only  one,  or,  at  most,  very  few  kinds 
of  work. 

At  present  some  men  do  nothing  but 
farm;  others,  nothing  but  dig  coal  or  iron 
ore  from  the  mines.  Some  spend  all  their 
time  at  fishing;  others  spend  it  in  mak- 
ing cloth,  or  needles,  or  shoes.  The  work 
that  one  man  does  may  be  of  a  very 
simple  kind.  For  example,  he  may  only 
drive  a  team,  or  make  screws,  or  saw 
shingles,  or  tie  up  sacks  of  flour. 

With  the  money  received  for  such  work 
he  buys  the  many  things  he  wants. 
These  articles  have  been  made  by  hun- 
dreds, perhaps  thousands,  of  other  people. 
Think  how  many  men  have  had  a  share 
in  the  work  of  preparing  the  food  that 
you  have  on  your  table  each  day,  or  the 
shoes  that  you  wear,  or  the  house  in 
which  you  live!  How  different  our  ways 
are  from  those  of  the  pioneers! 

As  more  people  settled  in  one  place, 
more  kinds  of  work  were  undertaken; 
but  two  of  the  most  common  kinds  were 
manufacturing  and  storekeeping  or  trade. 


The  factories  at  first  were  small,  employ- 
ing possibly  less  than  a  dozen  men.    But 
in  many  cities  there  are  now 
factories  that   employ  thou- 
sands  of    workers.     Fig.    19 
shows  such   a  factory.     Can 
you  tell  about  the  kind  of  man- 
ufacturing carried  on  in  some  factory  near 
you,  and  the  number  of  men  employed? 

The  stores,  too,  were  at  first  small,  hav- 
ing only  one  or  two  clerks.  Many  of  these 
also  have  grown  to  enormous  size,  and 


How  manu- 
facturing and 
trade  have 
helped  to 
develop  cities 


Courtesy  of  the  Packard  Automobile  Co. 

Fig.  19 


employ  hundreds  of  men  and  women.  Our 
cities  owe  their  growth  largely  to  these  two 
occupations,  manufacturing  and  trade. 


When  studying  the  lesson  it  is  impor- 
tant to  know  that  the  sentences  in  the 
text  are  not  all  to  be  remembered  ahke, 


20 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


for  they  are  not  all  of  the  same  value. 
Neither  are  the  paragraphs  all  of  the 
About  how  same  value,  nor  the  pages.  On 
to  study  ^j^g  contrary,  in  any  text  there 

are  always  some  sentences,  paragraphs, 
and  pages  that  are  far  more  important 
than  others,  and  one  of  the  principal 
things  to  do  in  studying  a  lesson  is  to 
discover  what  the  most  important  parts 
are.  For  example,  between  pp.  16  and 
19  several  questions  are  treated,  and  the 
most  important  one  is  that  on  p.  19, 
telling  about  the  extent  of  our  dependence 
upon  one  another  now.  In  that  section, 
also,  there  are  two  sentences  that  are  of 
special  value.  One  is  the  statement  that 
"Not  a  few  men  only,  but  every  man  be- 
gan to  do  only  one,  or,  at  most,  very  few 
kinds  of  work."  The  four  sentences  mak- 
ing the  next  paragraph  merely  illustrate 
this  statement.  The  first  sentence  in  the 
next  paragraph,  beginning  with  "With 
the  money  received  for  such  work,"  is 
the  most  important  one  there.  Those 
that  follow  merely  explain  it.  Thus  the 
principal  thoughts  in  this  section  are  con- 
tained in  these  two  sentences. 

In  all  study  of  this  text  it  is  best  to 
find  the  leading  question  in  a  number  of 


I  pages  and  the  one  or  two  chief  state- 
ments made  in  answer  to  each  question. 
It  is  much  more  interesting  to  study  in 
this  way,  and  one  remembers  better  what 
one  reads.  Try  this  plan  in  your  next 
lesson. 

1 .    In  what  ways  must  the  Eskimo  meet 
his  own  wants?    2.  Describe  the  habits  of 
our  pioneers  in  the  location         Review 
of  their  homes.    3.  What  kind         questions 
of  houses  and  furniture  did  they  have? 

4.  How  did  they  get  food  and  clothing? 

5.  Describe  their  schools.  6.  Describe  the 
journeys  they  sometimes  had  to  make. 
7.  Explain  how  people  came  to  depend 
more  upon  one  another.  8.  To  what  ex- 
tent are  we  dependent  upon  one  another 
now?  9.  How  have  manufacturing  and 
trade  helped  to  develop  cities? 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  attractions 
that  you  see  in  pioneer  life  like  that  de- 
scribed in  the  text?    2.  What      c„„„^e+;«„o 

Suggestions 

articles  would  you  expect  to  for  extra 
find  in  a  general  store  in  a  ^°^ 
village  or  in  the  country?  3.  How  are 
department  stores  in  cities  hke  such  gen- 
eral stores?  4.  Write  a  story  describing 
an  early  pioneer's  journey  to  the  nearest 
large  town. 


III.    A  Fourth  Great  Occupation  —  Transportation 


There  is  a  fourth  great  occupation.    If 

you  will  make  a  list  of  the  kinds  of  food 

.  *     you  eat,  you  will  find  that 

The  need  of       -^    .  p  ,.  ^, 

transportation  Only  a  lew  01  them  are  pro- 
°|8oods^and  ^j^^ed  near  you.  Try  it,  to 
see.  And  some  of  them  may 
have  come  a  very  long  distance.  The 
flour  for  your  bread  may  have  come  from 
Minnesota  or  Kansas  or  New  York; 
your  meat  from  states  still  farther  west; 


your  sugar  from  Cuba;  and  your  salt 
from  Michigan.  Likewise  the  dishes  on 
your  table,  the  knives,  forks,  and  spoons, 
and  even  the  table  itself,  with  the  chairs 
about  it,  were  probably  hauled  hundreds 
of  miles  before  reaching  you. 

Most  of  your  clothing  has  come  just  as 
far.  The  cotton  of  which  your  dress  or 
shirt  is  made  was  probably  grown  in 
the  South;    the  wool  for  your  woolen 


TRANSPORTATION 


21 


clothing,  in  Ohio  or  Montana;  and  the 
linen  for  your  collars  or  handkerchiefs  in 
Ireland. 

Can  you  suggest  where  the  materials 
for  building  j^our  home  were  produced: 
the  brick;  the  iron  and  the  lead  pipes;  the 
lumber,  nails,  tin,  sand,  and  many  other 
things?  The  coal,  also,  for  heating  your 
house?  Were  any  of  these  materials  found 
near  you?  How  many  of  them  probably 
had  to  be  brought  a  long  distance? 

It  is  plain  that  materials  for  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter  are  being  carried  in 
all  directions  all  the  time.  Nearly  every 
day  every  farmer  is  hauling  some  things 
to  his  farm  or  taking  others  away.  Every 
factory  is  receiving  quantities  of  raw  mate- 
rials and  shipping  away  finished  products. 
Every  store  is  constantly  receiving  and 
sending  out  supphes.  People,  too,  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  them,  have  to  be 
carried  from  place  to  place  every  day. 

The  work  of  hauHng  —  or  transportation 
as  it  is  called  —  is,  therefore,  a  fourth 
great  occupation.  Milhons  of  persons 
are  engaged  in  it,  just  as  other  millions 
are  engaged  in  farming,  manufacturing, 
and  trade. 

Any  country  that  has  not  advanced 
far  usually  has  very  poor  roads.  Often 
The  first  kind  they  are  only  paths  that  have 
of  roads  been  made  by  animals  or  men 

and  are  hardly  more  than  a  foot  wide. 

The  Indians  in  our  country  had  only 
narrow  paths,  or  trails,  for  roads.  They 
often  used  the  trails  made  by  the  buffalo. 
Wagons  could  not  be  drawn  over  these, 
and  goods  could  be  carried  only  on  the 
backs  of  men  or  of  animals.  A  number  of 
horses  carrying  packs  formed  a  pack 
train;  these  may  still  be  seen  in  some 
places  (Fig.  20). 


The  pioneers  at  first  had  only  trails, 
and  one  of  their  hardest  tasks  was  to  cut 
roads  through  the  dense  forests.  Trees  had 
to  be  cut  down,  stumps  and  stones  re- 
moved, steep  places  leveled,  and  swampy 
places  filled  in.  Streams  had  to  be  crossed 


Fig.  20 

by  wading  or  fording  them  in  places  where 
the  water  was  shallow  (Fig.  21).  This 
was  often  difficult  and  even  dangerous, 
especially  when  the  streams  were  swollen 
after  heavy  rains.  Bridges  were  built  as 
soon  as  the  people  were  able  to  do  so. 

As  long  as  each  man  depended  largely 
upon  himself  for  the  things  that  he 
needed,  there  was  not  much  qut  progress 
hauhng,  and  it  made  Httle  dif-  "i  foad 
ference  how  poor  the  roads  ^^ 
were.  But  when  each  person  did  only 
one  kind  of  work  and  relied  upon  others 


22 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


for  supplying  his  wants,  good  roads  or 
highways  came  to  be  of  great  importance. 
Our  dependence  upon  trucks  in  recent 
years  for  all  kinds  of  hauling  has  made 


Fig.  21 


good  roads  still  more  necessary,  for  such 
machines  make  poor  speed  on  bad  roads. 
It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  our  high- 
ways have  been  rapidly  improving.  There 


muddy  for  travel.  Do  you  know  any 
such?  Every  year,  however,  the  num- 
ber of  smooth,  hard,  and  level  roads  is 
greatly  increasing  (Fig.  23). 

Perhaps  you  have  seen 
some  road-building,  and  can 
describe  how  it  is  done. 
The  most  common  kind  of 
pavement  is  called  macad- 
am, after  the  name  of  the 
Scotchman  who  invented  it. 
It  consists  of  broken  stones 
several  inches  deep  covered 
over  with  fine  bits  of  rock; 
all  this  material  is  pressed 
down  very  hard  by  a  heavy 
steam  roller.  The  objection 
to  it  is  that  it  wears  out  too 
rapidly.  Better  kinds  are 
now  gradually  taking  its 
place,  in  which  asphalt  or 
brick  or  concrete  are  used. 
What  kinds  of  pavement 
are  found  in  your  neighborhood,  and 
where  is  the  best  section? 

Rivers  are  often  a  fine  substitute  for 
highways.    When  the  pioneers  were  set- 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 


t)  B)    uri  Bi    s 

Fig.  22 

are  still  many  wretched  ones  (Fig.  22) ,  in 
both  city  and  country,  roads  that  are 
very  rough,  or  steep  in  places,  or  too 


Fig.  23 

tling  in  the  Mississippi  Basin  it  was  the 
custom  to  float  their  goods  down  the  Ohio 
and  the  Mississippi  rivers  to  New  Orleans 


TRANSPORTATION 


23 


for  sale.  In  many  parts  of 
our  country  the  rivers  were 
Tbe  value  of  at  that  time  the 
rivers  for         best  and  almost 

transportation     .i  i  , 

the  only  routes 
of  travel  and  transportation. 

A  broad,  deep  river  may 
be  one  of  the  best  highways 
in  the  world.  To  be  sure,  no 
wagons  can  be  drawn  upon 
it,  but  boats  may  travel 
upon  it  with  ease.  A  large 
steamboat  can  carry  as 
much  freight  as  scores  of 
wagons  or  railroad  cars,  and 
many  boats  can  go  up  and 
down  it  at  the  same  time. 

River  navigation  is,  therefore,  an  impor- 
tant kind  of  transportation.  Before  the 
time  of  railways  —  which  is  no  longer  ago 
than  when  your  great-grandfathers  were 


Fig.  25 


©Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Fig.  24.  —  A  Mississippi  River  steamer 

boys  —  boats  were  used  for  carrying  all 
sorts  of  articles.  In  many  countries  they 
are  still  almost  the  only  means  of  hauling 
goods  long  distances,  and  even  in  the  more 
advanced  countries  they  are 
one  of  the  cheapest  means 
of  transportation  (Fig.  24). 
If  we  take  a  journey  from 
the  source  of  a  river  to  its 
lower  end  or 
mouth,  we  shall 
see  how  large  a 
part  of  it  is  use- 
less for  naviga- 
tion. It  may 
have  its  begin- 
ning or  source 
in  a  small  spring  in  the 
mountains  or  in  the  moun- 
tain snows,  where  it  is  so 
narrow  that  one  can  easily 
step  across  it. 

We  put  a  toy  boat  upon 
the  water  and  it  floats  along 
quietly  for  a  time.    Then, 


Difficulties  in 
the  way  of 
using  rivers 
for  transpor- 
tation 

1.  Why  the 
upper  course  of 
many  rivers  is 
of  no  use  for 
this  purpose 


24 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


coming  to  a  swift  part  of  the  current, 
called  a  rapid,  it  is  whirled  along  roughly 
and  upset.  We  rescue  it  and  set  it  right 
again,  but  soon  it  comes  to  a  place  where 
the  water  falls  many  feet  from  the  top  of 
a  ledge  (Fig.  25).  In  tumbling  over  this 
waterfall  the  boat  is  again  upset  and 
dashed  against  the  rocks. 

As  the  water  rushes  along,  beating  it- 
self into  foam,  it  is  here  and  there  joined 


Fig.  26 

by  other  branches  or  tributaries,  some 
very  small,  others  nearly  as  large  as  the 
brook  itself.  Thus  the  stream  gradually 
grows  broader  and  deeper. 

Often  the  water  must  rush  around  or 
leap  over  large  bowlders  that  lie  in  its 
path;  and  often  it  falls  directly  down- 
ward for  many  feet,  with  a  roar.  At  last 
the  river  leaves  the  mountains  and  flows 
in  a  broad  valley  through  a  hilly  country. 
Some  of  the  slopes  are  steep  and  covered 
with  forests;  others,  more  gentle,  are 
cleared  of  trees  and  dotted  with  farms. 


The  current  is  not  so  swift  now, 
although  there  are  still  some  rapids  and 
falls;  and  instead  of  rocky  cUffs,  the 
banks  are  low.  In  fact,  in  some  places 
these  are  not  much  higher  than  the  water. 
Here  and  there  a  tributary,  itself  almost 
a  river,  pours  its  flood  into  our  stream. 
It  has  now  been  many  hours  since  this 
water  left  the  mountains;  and  it  has 
become  so  deep  that  we  can  drift  along 
easily  in  a  rowboat,  watch- 
ing the  men  at  work  in  the 
fields,  and  the  villages  that 
we  pass  (Fig.  26). 

At  one  point,  however, 
the  current  grows  swifter, 
and  finally  the  water  tum- 
bles in  a  great  fall.  We  must 
leave  the  river  at  this  point 
and  pass  around  the  fall. 
Here  is  a  large  city  with 
many  mills  and  factories. 
From  this  point  on,  the 
stream  is  so  broad  and  deep 
that  large  steamboats  can 
travel  upon  it;  it  has  now 
become  a  great  river  and 
valuable  for  navigation. 
Above  this  point,  however, 
on  account  of  the  shallow  water,  the 
swift  current,  and  the  rapids  and  falls,  it 
is  of  no  use  for  transportation.  Most 
rivers  in  their  upper  courses  suffer  from 
one  or  more  of  these  difficulties. 

There  are  other  difficulties  besides  falls 
in  the  way  of  transportation  along  the 
rivers.    In  time   of  floods,    2.  Difficulties 
caused  by  heavy  rains  or  the    of  transporta- 

1    .  -  .  ^  tioninthe 

meltmg  of  snow,  rivers  often    lower  course  of 
break  through  their  banks  and 
change  their  courses.     Then   river  ves- 
sels that  sink  many  feet  in  the  water 


©  Euirtg  Gallouay 


TRANSPORTATION 


25 


have  great  difficulty  in  finding  a  safe  route. 
There  is  another  serious  difficulty  due  to 
the  load  of  mud  in  river  water.  Rivers,  as 
you  have  already  learned 
(p.  10),  usually  carry  quan- 
tities of  soil  taken  from  the 
valleys  through  which 
they  flow.  They  also  grind 
up  rock  by  rolling  stones 
about  in  the  stream  bed 
and  carry  off  the  rock  bits 
in  the  current.  All  such 
loose  material  is  called 
sediment,  and  the  amount  of  it  in  any 
river  is  generally  large.  In  times  of 
flood  it  is  enormous.  Why  should  it  be 
larger  at   such    times    than    at    others? 

How  great  the  quantity 
may  be  is  suggested  by  the 
amount  of  land  that  the 
rivers  build  with  a  small 
part  of  it.  When  the  rivers 
overflow  their  banks  and 
spread  out  over  the  sur- 
rounding country,  their 
slowly  moving  waters  drop 
some  of  this  sediment  and 
form  a  thin  layer  of  mud. 
Each  flood  adds  another 
layer,  until  after  many 
years  land  is  built  above 
the  usual  level  of  the  river. 
vSuch  land  is  generally  a 
level  plain;  and,  since  it 
is  made  by  river  floods,  it 
is  called  a  flood  plain.  In 
the  same  manner  plains  are 
built  at  the  mouths  of  many  rivers;  these 
are  called  deltas,  because  their  shape  of  a 
triangle  resembles  the  shape  of  a  Greek 
letter  a,  called  delta  (Fig.  27).  Sometimes 
such   plains   are  many  miles   in  width. 


Fig.  27 


Fig.  28 


Much  of  the  river  sediment,  however, 
is  dropped  in  unexpected  places.    As  the 
current  shifts  about,  sand  bars  may  be 
formed  from  the  sediment, 
so  as  to  block  the  old 
river  channel  here  and 
there.  Then  the  boats  run 
aground,  or   lose   much 
time  in   picking  out  a 
safer  route.     On  account 
of  such  difficulties,  trans- 
portation   even     on     the 
lower  courses  of  rivers 
calls  for  much   care   and  expense. 

Fig.  28  represents  a  river  system;  that 
is,  a  main  river  and  all  the  smaller  streams 
or  tributaries  that  flow  into  it. 

Ai  •  How  small  a 

large    river   part  of  any 

such    as    this  nver  system 

,  is  valuable  for 

one   may   have  transportation 

dozens  of  trib- 
utaries, bringing  together 
the  rain  that  falls  in  places 
even  hundreds  of  miles 
apart.  Yet  while  there  are 
many  streams,  possibly 
only  the  lower  course  of 
the  main  one  would  be  of 
use  for  transportation.  Its 
upper  course  and  its  many 
tributaries  would  be  too 
shallow  for  boats,  or  their 
rapids  and  falls  would  pre- 
vent their  use.  What  diffi- 
culties might  boats  have  to 
meet  even  at  the  delta  of 
this  river? 
Although  it  is  only  about  100  years 
since  the  first  railroads  were  built,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  imagine  how  we 
could  do  without  them  now.  Many  of 
the  things  we  use  must  be  brought  1,000 


26 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


miles  or  more  overland.  Look  about  in 
a  grocery  or  hardware  store  and  make 
a  list  of  articles  that  have 
have  iSgeiy  probably  been  hauled  at  least 
taken  the         ^j^g^j^  distance.    If  there  is  a 

place  of  wag-  £    j     u 

on  roads  and  factory  near  you,  nnd  now 
rivers  for         £g^j.  a^^y  gome  of  its  products 

transportation  "^  ^ 

are  sent. 

Wagon  roads  cannot  well  be  used  for 
such  long-distance  hauling;  it  is  slow  for 
all  things  and  altogether  too  slow  for 
many.  For  example,  fresh  fruit,  vege- 
tables, and  meat  could  not  be  shipped  so 
far  by  wagon  roads;  nor  would  people  be 
satisfied  to  send  their  mail  or  to  travel  in 
that  way.  Transportation  by  river  is 
somewhat  faster;  but  it  is  still  very  slow 
compared  with  that  by  rail.  Besides, 
rivers  do  not  run  in  the  right  direction 
for  much  of  the  necessary  traffic.  For 
such  reasons,  railroads  have  largely  taken 
the  place  of  our  rivers  for  all  kinds  of 
transportation,  and  they  have  taken  the 
place  of  our  wagon  roads  for  most  long- 
distance hauling. 

Rivers,  wagon  roads,  and  railroads 
generally  follow  the  valleys.  Can  you  ex- 
plain why  the  rivers  do  so? 

Why  rivers,        r^  •  i 

roads,  and  ^^^i  you  give  some  examples 
raUwaysfoi-  of  wagon  roads  and  railways 
leys  that  keep  to  the  valleys? 

The  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  bottoms  of  valleys  usually  have  a 
gentle  slope,  and  it  is  easier  to  build  roads 
and  travel  over  such  land  than  up  and 
down  across  hills.  On  that  account,  when 
white  men  first  came  to  this  country  and 
settled  among  the  hills,  they  built  their 
roads  in  the  valleys;  and  the  same  thing 
is  still  done. 

Trains  cannot  be  drawn  up  steep  slopes; 
and  therefore  the  railroads  must  either 


cut  througli  the  hills  or  follow  the  val- 
leys. The  latter  is  much  the  cheaper 
plan,  so  that  in  a  hilly  country  railroads 
wind  in  and  out,  often  making  sharp 
curves  in  order  to  keep  to  the  valleys. 


In  studying  a  lesson  it  is  best  not  to 
spend  all  your  time  with  your  book  in 
hand.  After  carefully  reading  About  how 
the  text  through  two  or  three  *°  ^^^^^ 
times,  it  is  best  to  select  some  topic  that 
you  think  would  prove  interesting  to  your 
mother,  or  to  some  of  your  friends,  or  that 
they  could  tell  you  more  about.  Then, 
at  some  time  when  the  others  pres- 
ent have  nothing  special  to  talk  about, 
bring  up  this  topic.  Tell  what  you  have 
read,  and  ask  some  questions  about  it. 
Talking  over  a  part  of  a  lesson  in  such  a 
way  is  one  of  the  very  best  ways  of  study- 
ing it. 

1.  Show  how  great  is  the  need  of  trans- 
portation of  goods  and  people.  2.  De- 
scribe the  roads  of  early  times.  Review 
3.  What  progress  have  we  questions 
made  in  road-building?  Tell  about  the 
different  kinds  of  pavement.  4.  Explain 
the  value  of  rivers  for  transportation.  5. 
Why  is  the  upper  course  of  many  rivers 
of  little  use  for  this  purpose?  6.  What 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  transportation 
are  met  in  the  lower  courses  of  rivers? 
7.  What  is  a  river  system?  Show  why 
only  a  small  part  of  any  river  system  is  of 
value  for  transportation.  8.  Why  have 
our  railroads  largely  taken  the  place  of 
our  wagon  roads  and  rivers  for  trans- 
portation? 9.  What  is  meant  by  the 
source  of  a  river?  Rapids?  Tributaries? 
Falls?    Flood  plains?    Deltas? 

1.  The  last  syllable  in  the  names  of 
many  towns  and  cities  is  ford,  as,  for 


GOVERNMENT 


27 


example,  Hartford,  Stamford,  and  Rock- 
ford.  What  does  this  suggest  to  you? 
Suggestions  2.  How  cau  good  roads  and 
for  extra  waterways    help    to    prevent 

^^"^^  famines?    3.    What  is  meant 

by  the  "right  bank"  of  a  river?  The 
''left  bank?"  River  bed?  River  chan- 
nel? River  basin?  4.  Why  are  the  rocks 
in  river  beds  generally  so  smooth  and 


round?  5.  Find  a  spring.  Why  are  its 
waters  always  cool?  6.  Find  out  some  of 
the  ways  in  which  rivers  are  improved 
for  transportation.  7.  Make  a  collec- 
tion of  pictures  of  rivers,  and  state  as 
many  facts  as  you  can  about  them.  8. 
Make  a  drawing  of  a  river,  showing 
its  source,  mouth,  tributaries,  and  flood 
plains. 


IV.    Government 


You  have  studied  about  the  four  great- 
est occupations  in  the  world.  But  there 
Our  need  of  ^^^  many  hard-working  people 
laws  and  offi-  who  are  not  engaged  in  farm- 
ing, manufacturing,  trade,  or 
transportation.  Your  teacher  is  an  ex- 
ample. Can  you  give  several  other 
examples? 

It  is  plain  that  there  are  many  other 
kinds  of  employment  beside  these  four. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  the  other's 
is  government.  There  must  be  laws  about 
health,  the  care  of  streets,  the  education 
of  children,  the  raising  of  taxes,  and  scores 
of  other  matters;  and  persons  must  be 
chosen  to  make  such  laws.  These  laws 
must  also  be  enforced,  which  calls  for 
many  more  men,  such,  for  example,  as 
poUcemen,  firemen,  judges,  and  a  host 
of  others.  Thus  there  are  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  men  and  women  in  the 
United  States  who  give  all  their  time  to 
the  work  of  carrying  on  our  government. 

Many  of  these  people  have  to  be  elected 
by  vote  of  the  people  to  the  offices  they 
How  people  hold.  Do  you  know  what  is 
are  elected  to   meant    by    voting;    and    by 

office  1      +•         9  ^  ^ 

elections.'^ 
Suppose  that  all  the  members  of  your 
class,  or  of  your  school,  wished  to  form  a 


club,  and  to  choose  one  of  your  number 
president.  How  would  you  go  about  it? 
Probably  the  names  of  two  or  three  chil- 
dren who  seemed  best  fitted  for  the  place 
would  first  be  suggested.  Then  each  of 
you  would  write  the  name  of  the  one  you 
preferred  upon  a  slip  of  paper,  and  drop  it 
into  a  box.  After  that,  all  the  slips,  or 
votes,  would  be  counted,  and  the  boy  or 
girl  who  received  the  greatest  number 
of  votes  would  be  elected. 

In  such  a  case  you  would  be  voting, 
and  having  an  election  at  school.  When 
you  dropped  the  name  of  the  one  you  pre- 
ferred into  the  box,  you  cast  a  vote;  and 
the  election  was  nothing  more  than  the 
choice  of  some  one  for  the  position.  Quite 
possibly  some  of  you  would  become  just 
as  much  interested  in  such  an  election  as 
men  do  in  their  elections. 

Men  hold  their  elections  in  much  the 
same  way.  Ask  your  father  and  mother 
to  tell  you  exactly  how  they  vote. 

People  hold  elections  and  vote  on 
many  sorts  of  questions,  but  usually  when 
one  speaks  of  voting  and  of  Matters  that 
elections  one  means  the  choice     elections 

r     rn  i>  j.        decide 

01  oincers  tor  our  government. 

We  do  not  hold  elections  to  decide  how  a 

farmer  shall  manage  his  farm,  for  it  is 


28 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


best  that  he  should  do  that  about  as  he 
pleases.  He  builds  fences,  plants  certain 
crops,  and  sells  his  grain  or  feeds  it  to  his 
stock,  as  seems  to  him  best.  So,  also, 
the  miller  builds  a  large  or  a  small  mill, 
uses  old  or  new  machinery,  grinds  much 


Fig.  29.  —  The  legislature  of  Illinois 

or  little  corn,  and  makes  repairs  as  he 
chooses.  In  each  of  these  cases  one  man 
owns  and  uses  the  property. 

There  are  many  things,  however,  that 
no  one  person  owns,  and  in  which  a  large 
nxmiber  of  people  are  about  equally  in- 
terested. This  is  true,  for  instance,  of 
roads.  Many  people  drive  or  walk  over 
them,  but  no  one  person  owns  them. 
The  people  together  have  to  decide,  or 
vote,  where  and  how  they  shall  be  built 
and  repaired,  and  who  shall  do  the  work. 
That  is,  they  hold  elections  to  make  laws 
about  the  roads,  and  choose  officers  to 
carry  out  such  laws. 


The  schools,  hkewise,  are  not  usually 
owned  by  any  one  person,  and  are  of  great 
interest  to  everybody.  'So  questions  about 
the  schools  are  also  voted  upon  at  elections. 
What  shall  be  done  with  thieves  and 
disorderly  persons?  This  is  another  ques- 
tion of  great  interest  to 
everybody.  Laws  must  be 
made  to  control  such  peo- 
ple, and  officers  must  be 
selected  to  carry  out  such 
laws.  There  are  many  other 
questions  that  interest  large 
numbers  of  people.  Can 
you  name  some  of  them? 
Ask  your  father  or  mother 
to  tell  you  what  will  be  some 
of  the  questions  to  be  voted 
on  at  the  next  election. 

Elections,  therefore,  deal 
with  matters  of  general  in- 
terest. They  provide  for 
laws  on  such  matters,  and 
for  the  selection  of  officers 
to  enforce  them. 

Some  of  the  matters  that 
are  voted   on   at  elections 
concern   only   those    persons 
who  live  in  a  small  section,  as  be^voted  up°on 
in  a  small  town  or  village.  For  by  small 
instance,  the  kind  of  streets  peopfe° 
that  you  shall  have,  and  the 
men  who  shall  take   care  of  them,  are 
questions  of  no  special  interest  to  people 
in  other  towns  or  cities,  but  they  interest 
all  the  voters  in  your  section. 

It  is  also  very  important  that  you  have 
a  good  school  building,  with  good  teachers. 
People  living  at  a  distance  have  Uttle 
interest  in  your  school,  but  those  who  live 
near  you  are  very  much  interested  in  it. 
The  people  to  vote  on  such  a  question, 


©  Ewing  Galloway 


GOVERNMENT 


29 


therefore,  are  those  who  have  a  special 
interest  in  it. 

Thus  there  are  many  matters  that  are 
of  chief  interest  to  the  persons  Uving  in 
one  neighborhood.  They  are  called  local 
questions,  and  are  voted  upon  only  by  the 
few  voters  in  that  section.  Ask  someone 
to  tell  you  of  other  local  questions. 

There   are  some  matters  that  are  of 

interest  to  the  people  in  a  much  larger 

area.    For  example,  a  railway 

Matters  that  . 

concern  the  Company  might  charge  too 
people  of  a       much  for  hauHug  passengers 

whole  state  /.     •    i  x  i 

and  freight.  In  such  a  case, 
laws  may  be  needed,  forcing  them  to 
charge  lower  rates.  Since  a  railway  may 
be  hundreds  of  miles  long,  the  people  of  a 
single  town  or  city  could  do  very  little 
with  such  a  company.  In  that  case  it 
would  be  necessary  for  men  living  per- 
haps hundreds  of  miles  apart  to  unite  in 
some  way  to  make  laws. 

Again,  it  is  important  that  there  be 
buildings  in  which  bhnd  people  may  be 
cared  for;  others  in  which  the  deaf  and 
dumb  may  be  educated;  and  still  others 
in  which  insane  people  may  be  kept. 
There  must  also  be  strong  prisons  where 
criminals  may  be  sent.  There  are  not 
many  such  persons  in  any  one  small  dis- 
trict, and  it  would  prove  very  expensive 
and  difficult  to  take  proper  care  of  only  a 
few  of  each  kind.  Therefore,  all  the 
people  in  a  large  area,  called  a  state, 
unite  to  make  proper  laws  and  provide 
buildings  and  officers  for  the  care  of  such 
people.    What  is  the  name  of  your  state? 

The  voters  of  a  state  cannot,  of  course, 
all  come  together  at  one  place  to  discuss 
such  matters.  Even  if  all  could  make  the 
journey  at  a  time  agreed  upon,  there 
would  be  so  many  that  it  would  not  be 


possible  for  all  to  hear  those  who  spoke, 
and  little  business  could  be  done.  Be- 
sides, new  laws  are  needed  every  year,  and 
the  voters  would  have  to  spend  too  much 
time  on  such  work. 

For  these  reasons  it  is  the  custom  for 
one  man  to  be  elected  to  represent  many 
others  in  the  making  of  laws.  Where 
there  are  great  numbers  of  people,  he 
may  represent  many  thousands,  and 
vote  in  place  of  them  all.  Suppose,  for 
instance,  that  there  are  a  million  persons 
living  in  one  state,  and  that  one  man  is 


©  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  30.  —  The  capitol  at  Springfield  in  Illinois 

elected  to  represent  every  ten  thousand. 
One  hundred  such  men  would  then  be 
chosen,  and  it  would  be  their  duty  to 
come  together  and  make  laws  for  the 
whole  million. 

Such  men,  being  elected  to  represent 
others,  are  called  representatives;  and  be- 


80 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


cause  they  legislate  (which  means  "make 
laws")?  the  whole  body  is  called  the 
legislature  (Fig.  29). 

The  city  where  the  legislature  meets  is 
called  the  capital  (which  means  "head 
city")  of  the  state.  The  capital  is  often 
located  near  the  center  of  the  state,  and  it 
usually  has  a  fine,  large  building,  called 
the  state  capital  (Fig.  30).  It  is  here  that 
the  representatives  hold  their  meetings. 

The  chief  officer  of  the  state,  who  is 
elected  to  see  that  the  state  laws  are  car- 
ried out,  or  enforced,  is  called  the  governor. 
Who  is  your  governor?  He  is  elected  by 
voters  in  all  parts  of  the  state,  while  each 
representative  is  elected  by  a  small  sec- 
tion of  the  state.  There  are  also  other 
state  officers,  such  as  a  state  treasurer,  a 
state  superintendent  of  schools,  and 
judges.  Some  of  these  officers  are  elected 
by  the  people;  others  are  appointed  by 
the  governor. 

In  cities,  laws  are  made  through  repre- 
sentatives, just  as  in  states,  and  for  the 
same  reasons.  The  represent- 
madeand^'^^  ativcs  chosen  to  make  the 
officers  se-  laws  in  cities  are  usually  called 
cities  aldermen;     and    the    highest 

officer,  elected  to  carry  out,  or 
execute,  the  laws  is  called  the  mayor. 
All  these  officers  are  chosen  by  the  voters 
at  elections.  If  your  home  is  in  a  city, 
learn  the  name  of  your  mayor  and  that  of 
the  alderman  from  your  neighborhood. 
Find  out  what  some  of  their  duties  are. 

The  building  in  which  these  representa- 
tives meet,  and  in  which  the  mayor  has 
his  office,  is  called  the  city  hall.  While  the 
city  is  governed  in  some  matters  by  its 
own  laws  and  officers,  like  any  small  town, 
it  also  forms  part  of  the  state  and  elects 
representatives  to  the  legislature. 


In  our  country  there  are    forty-eight 
states,  and  there  are  some  questions  that 
no  one  state  can  decide  alone, 
because  the  others  are  equally    2"fstions 

n         v'       that  concern 

mterested  m  them.  For  in-  the  people  of 
stance,  it  would  be  a  great  stetS"^*'^ 
hindrance  to  trade  and  travel 
if  each  state  made  its  own  money,  for 
each  state  might  then  have  different  coins. 
In  that  case,  every  time  a  traveler  passed 
from  one  state  to  another,  he  would  be 
obliged  to  exchange  his  money  for  a  new 
kind. 

Again,  in  case  of  war,  the  country 
would  be  weak  if  each  state  acted  alone. 
Perhaps  you  can  give  some  of  the  reasons 
why.  Mail  is  another  matter  that  con- 
cerns all  the  states.  There  are  many  others 
besides.    Can  you  mention  some  of  them? 

So  it  is  clear  that  we  need  a  United 
States  government  as  well  as  state,  city, 
and  town  governments.  The  reason  for 
calHng  it  the  United  States  government  is 
also  plain,  for  the  states  have  really 
united,  in  order  to  have  one  central  gov- 
ernment for  many  important  matters. 

If  the  people  in  a  single  city  or  state 
cannot  meet  in  a  body  to  make  laws,  cer- 
tainly the  people  of  the  entire 
United  States  cannot  do  so.  ^ade^and"^ 
Therefore,  representatives  are  officers  chosen 
elected,  and  sent  to  one  place,  sites 
from   all    the   states    of    the 
Union.     Here  they  consider  questions  of 
interest  to  the  whole  nation. 

The  place  where  they  meet  is  Washing- 
ton, and  this  city  is  called,  on  that  ac- 
count, the  capital  of  the  United  States,  or  the 
national  capital.  At  Washington  there  is  a 
magnificent  capitol  in  which  the  meetings 
are  held  (Fig.  77).  There  are  many  other 
fine  government  buildings  there  also. 


GOVERNMENT 


31 


Who 


The  representatives  from  the  forty- 
eight  states  of  the  Union  form  what  is 
known  as  Congress.  This  corresponds  to 
the  legislatures  of  the  state,  for  the  con- 
gressmen make  laws  for  the  nation,  as  the 
legislators  do  for  the  state.  The  members 
of  Congress  are  called  sena- 
tors and  representatives. 

The  chief  executive  officer 
of  the  United  States,  corres- 
ponding to  the  mayor  of  a 
city  and  the  governor  of  a 
state,  is  called  the  president. 
He  Hves  in  Washington,  and 
his  residence  is  called  the 
executive  mansion,  or  White 
House,  since  it  is  white  in 
color  (Fig.  31).  Who  is  now 
President  of  the  United  States? 
was  the  first  President? 

Besides  these  officers,  who  are  elected 
by  the  people,  there  are  a  great  many 
others  who  are  appointed  by  the  President 
to  carry  on  the  work  of  government. 
Many  live  in  Washington,  but  some,  such 
as  postmasters,  Uve  in  other  places. 

We  have  seen  that  our  representatives 
and  other  officers  are  elected  by  votes 
Why  our  gov-  that  are  cast  for  them.  Be- 
ermnent  is       cause  the  people  thus  have  the 

called  a  ^        ^     •  '^ 

democracy  power  to  makQ  their  own  laws, 
andarepubUc  Qyj.  government  is  called  a 
democracy.  The  first  part  of  this  word 
means  "people"  and  the  last  part  "gov- 
ernment," so  that  the  whole  word  means 
"government  by  the  people."  Because 
the  people  do  not  really  make  the  laws 
themselves,  but  elect  representatives  to 
do  this  for  them,  ours  is  often  called  a 
representative  government,  or  a  republic. 


is  an  important  occupation.  2.  How  are 
people  elected  to  office?  3.  What  kind 
of  questions  do  elections  decide?  4. 
Give  examples  of  questions  that  Review 
are  voted  upon  by  small  groups  questions 
of  people.     5.  Of  questions  that  concern 


©  Manufacturers'  Aircraft  Assn. 

Fig.  31 
This  view  of  the  White  House  was  taken  from  an  airplane. 


1.  Show  that  the  work  of  government 


the  people  of  a  whole  state.  6.  How  are 
laws  made  for  a  whole  state,  and  who  are 
some  of  the  officers  elected  for  the  state? 

7.  How  are  laws  made  for  cities,  and  who 
are  some  of  the  officers  elected  for  cities? 

8.  Give  examples  of  questions  that  con- 
cern the  people  of  the  United  States.  9. 
How  are  laws  made,  and  who  are  some 
of  the  officers  chosen,  for  the  United 
States?  10.  Why  is  our  government 
called  a  democracy?    Why  a  republic? 

1.  Name  some  officers  that  you  know 
about,  and  find  out  whether  they  repre- 
sent  the  local,   state,   or      ^ 

.  '  '  Suggestions 

the  national  government.  2.  for  extra 
What  officers  look  after  your  "^^^^ 
school,  and  how  are  they  chosen?  3.  What 
is  the  capital  of  your  state,  and  where  is 
it?  4.  In  what  respect  are  the  town  hall, 
city  hall,  state  capitol,  and  United  States 
capitol  ahke  in  their  use?  5.  Why  should 
the  capital  of  a  state  be  near  the  center 
of  the  state,  if  possible?  6.  What  does 
U.  S.  stand  for? 


32 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


V.  Maps 


It  is  often  important  to  represent  a 
country  upon  a  map,  so  as  to  tell  at  a 
glance  what  its  shape  is,  and  where  its 
mountains,  rivers,  and  cities  are.     Such 


.^r^ 


:j    c 


CJ  CJ  LZJ  CJ  CZJ  im  CZD 

czi  cn  cj  cn  nj  cj  nj 

WEST  «  J'^  CZI  □  □  □  CD  □  □ 

□□□□□□□ 

HH  □  O  [^  CZ]  CU  LZl 
CD  □  □  □  □  CZJ  □ 

□ o □ □□□ □ 


SOUTK  »^-^ 

^''11,1,1     I     r     I     t 

0     2      4     6     8     10    12   14    tS 

SCALE  OF  feet:  1   INCH  —  1  6  FEET 
OR  ^g  OF  AN  INCH  =1  FOOT 

Fig.  32 

a  drawing  can  be  made  of  any  place,  no 
matter  how  large  or  small  it  may  be. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  we  desire  to 
make  a  map,  or  drawing,  of  a  schoolroom. 
XT  *  The  room  we  have  chosen  is 

How  a  map  of 

a  schoolroom    thirty-two  feet  long  and  thir- 

can  be  drawn     ^^_^^^    f^^^   ^^^        j^   ^^^j^ 

not  be  easy  to  find  a  piece  of  paper  as 
large  as  that;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to 
have  so  large  a  piece  in  order  to  make  the 
drawing.  A  small  piece  will  do  just  as 
well,  if  we  let  one  inch  on  the  paper  stand 
for  several  feet  in  the  room. 

In  this  case  let  one  inch  stand  for  six- 
teen feet.  Since  the  room  is  thirty-two 
feet  on  each  side,  the  drawing  will  be  just 
two  inches  long  and  two  inches  wide.  To 
place  the  desks  and  aisles  properly,  we 
shall  need  to  use  a  ruler  with  the  inches 
divided  into  sixteenths;    for  one  foot  in 


the  room  represents  one  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  on  the  ruler. 

The  ends  of  the  room  are  on  the  north 
and  south,  and  the  sides  on  the  east  and 
west.  The  teacher's  desk  is  three  and 
one  half  feet  in  front  of  the  north  wall. 
There  is  a  row  of  desks  about  four  feet 
from  the  west  wall.  The  desks  are  just 
two  feet  long,  with  eight  in  a  row  one  and 
one  fourth  feet  apart.  There  are  seven 
rows,  and  the  aisles  between  them  are  each 
one  and  one  fourth  feet  wide.  The  piano 
is  on  the  west  side  of  the  teacher's  desk. 

Here  is  a  map  of  the  schoolroom  (Fig. 
32).  Measure  each  part  to  see  whether  it 
has  been  drawn  correctly,  using  a  foot  rule 
that  shows  the  sixteenth  part  of  an  inch. 
How  large  istheteacher'sdesk?  The  piano? 

When  a  person  draws  in  this  way,  let- 
ting a  certain  distance  on  the  paper  stand 
for  a  greater  distance,  he  is    „ 

.  ,   .  ,  ,  ,  Meaning  of 

said  to  use  a  scale,  or  to  make    drawing  "ac- 
a  map  according  to  a  scale.     ^°^*^^  *°  ^ 
In   the   schoolroom  just   de- 
scribed the  scale  is  one  inch  to  sixteen  feet. 


School 

House 

Tree 

^^ 

o 
Tree 

Tre. 

mik 

O 

Hydrant 

SOUTH 
105        140 


280 


■SCALE  IN  FEET:  1  INCH -1 40  FEET 


Fig.  33 

In  the  next  drawing,  that  of  the  school 
yard  (Fig.  33),  the  number  of  feet  which 
an  inch  represents  must  be  still  greater, 


MAPS 


33 


because  the  yard  is  much  larger  than  the 
room.  Here  one  inch  represents  140 
feet.  According  to  this  scale,  find  out 
how  large  the  yard  and  the  school  building 
are.  Find  how  far  the  trees  are  from  each 


Fig.  34 

other;  from  the  nearest  fence;  from  the 
nearest  part  of  the  building. 

All  maps  are  drawn  according  to  a 
scale,  just  as  these  two  are.  It  makes  no 
difference  whether  they  represent  a  school 
yard,  a  state,  the  United  States,  or  even 
the  entire  earth ;  all  are  drawn  to  a  scale. 
In  this  book  there  is  a  map  of  North 
America  (Fig.  59);  to  what  scale  is  it 
drawn?  Look  at  some  other  maps  in  the 
book  to  find  out  their  scales. 

Can  you  not  make  a  map  of  your  own 
schoolroom?  What  scale  will  you  use? 
Maps  that  you  Put  in  your  own  desk,  but 
may  draw  ^^^^  ^^le  others.  Draw  also  a 
map  of  your  school  yard.  If  you  prefer 
to  do  so,  find  its  size  by  stepping  off,  or 
pacing,  the  distance,  making  each  of  your 
steps  about  two  feet  long.  Measure  the 
building  in  the  same  way.  After  having 
finished  these  two  maps,  draw  a  third 
one,  including  in  it  not  only  the  school 
yard,  but  also  a  few  of  the  streets  and 
houses  near  by.  Let  the  scale  for  this 
third  map  be  one  inch  for  every  five  hun- 
dred steps. 

Maps  are  used  a  great  deal  to  show  the 
location  of  places  and  the  direction  of 


one  place  from  another.     To  use  them 
properly,  a  person  must  first    ways  of  find- 
understand     what    is    meant     ing  directions 
by  north,    south,    east,   and    °"  °    ^^^^ 
west.     Probably  you  already  know  this. 

One  of  the  easiest  ways  to  find  the 
direction  is  by  a  compass  (Fig.  34).  A 
compass  is  a  piece  of  steel,  called  a  needle, 
which  swings  around  easily  and  always 
points  to  the  north.  This  needle  is  a 
magnet  like  the  horseshoe  magnets  that 
you  have  seen.  It  points  northward  be- 
cause some  force  within  the  earth  draws 
it  in  that  direction.  No  one  knows  cer- 
tainly just  what  this  force  is,  but  it  is 
called  magnetism. 

Another  way  to  tell  direction  is  by  the 
stars.  When  the  stars  are  shining,  one 
can  tell  which  direction  is  north  by  the 
help  of  the  Great  Dipper  (Fig.  35).  The 
two  stars  on  the  edge  of  the  Great  Dipper 


Fig.  35.—  The  Great  Dipper 

The  stars   shown  with  four  points  are  a  little  less 
bright  than  the  others.    Polaris  means  "  North  Star." 

point  toward  the  North  Star.  This  star, 
which  can  easily  be  found,  lies  always  to 
the  north  of  us. 


34 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


One  can  also  find  direction  with  the  help 
of  the  sun.  At  noon  it  stands  exactly  south 
of  us;  and  twice  each  year,  about  the  21st 
of  March  and  the  21st  of  September,  it 
rises  exactly  in  the  east  and  sets  exactly 
in  the  west.  Where  does  it  rise  in  winter? 
In  summer?  When  you  face  the  east, 
which  direction  is  on  your  right?  Which 
on  your  left?  Answer  the  same  questions 
when  facing  the  west;  the  south. 

Northeast  (N.  E.)  means  between  north 
and  east;  southeast  (S.  E.),  between  south 
and  east.  What,  then,  do  northwest  and 
southwest  mean? 

Point  north,  east,  west,  south,  south- 
west, northeast,  northwest.  What  is 
the  direction  from  your  desk  to  the 
teacher's  desk?  To  the  desk  of  one  of 
your  schoolmates?  To  the  door?  What 
direction  is  your  home  from  the  school- 
house?  From  certain  other  houses?  In 
what  directions  do  some  of  the  roads  or 
streets  where  you  live  extend? 

Now  let  us  tell  directions  on  the  map. 
Lay  your  drawing  of  the  schoolroom 
Directions  upon  your  desk  so  that  the 
on  a  map  jjjjg  representing  the  north 
side  of  the  room  is  on  the  north  side.  Also 
place  yourself  so  that  you  face  directly 
north  as  you  look  at  the  map.  Now 
north  on  the  map  is  also  north  in  the 
room,  and  the  other  directions  agree  with 
those  in  the  room.  In  which  direction, 
on  the  map,  is  the  door  from  your  desk? 
From  the  teacher's  desk?  Place  your 
map  of  the  school  yard  in  the  same  posi- 
tion, and  give  the  directions. 

You  see  that  the  north  side  of  this  map 
is  the  side  farthest  from  you.  The  east 
side  is  on  your  right,  the  south  side  is 
nearest  to  you,  and  the  west  side  is  on 
your  left.    When  a  map  is  lying  before  us, 


the  directions  on  it  are  usually  the  same 
as  these. 

Of  course  it  is  not  always  convenient 
to  have  a  map  lying  flat.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  in  the  schoolroom,  where 
large  maps  must  be  hung  up,  so  that  the 
whole  class  may  see  them. 

Let  us  hang  up  one  of  these  maps,  tak- 
ing particular  pains  to  place  it  upon  the 
north  wall.  Which  direction  on  the  map 
is  north  now?  You  see,  of  course,  that 
the  north  side  must  be  the  upper  side, 
east  is  on  the  right,  south  is  the  lower  side, 
and  west  is  on  the  left. 

You  should  drill  yourself  to  understand 
directions  on  maps.  Give  directions  from 
one  place  to  another  while  the  map  is 
hanging  up.  Put  up  the  map  of  the  school 
yard,  and  any  others  that  you  may  have, 
and  tell  the  directions  from  place  to  place. ^ 

It  is  clear  now  what  a  map  is.  It  is  a 
drawing  telling  something  about  a  coun- 
try, just  as  a  letter  may  tell  in  writing 
what  a  place  is  like.  When  you  read  such 
a  letter,  you  think  of  the  place  and  have 
some  idea  of  how  it  looks.  So,  when  you 
look  at  a  map,  yoii  should  think  about 
the  country  it  represents,  how  it  looks, 
and  how  far  apart  the  places  are. 


1.  How  can  a  map  of  a  schoolroom  be 
drawn?     2.  What  is  meant  by  drawing 
'^ according  to  a  scale?"     3.         Review 
Tell  how  you  have  drawn  some         questions 
map  of  your  own.    4.  What  are  some  of 

'  To  the  Teacher:  After  the  children  are  quite  at  home 
in  using  the  map  when  it  is  hung  on  the  north  wall,  hang 
it  on  the  other  sides  of  the  room  and  have  them  give  the 
directions.  This  is  very  easy  work  if  properly  graded;  but 
careless  work  at  this  point,  in  regard  to  directions  on  the 
map,  often  so  confuses  children  that  they  never  fully  re- 
cover from  their  confusion.  At  the  proper  time,  but  much 
later  than  this,  show  that  toward  the  top  of  the  map  is 
not  always  north.    (See  Fig.  58.) 


FORM  AND  SIZE   OF   THE   EARTH 


35 


the  ways  of  finding  directions  out  of 
doors?  5.  What  are  the  directions  on  a 
map? 

1.  Examine  a  compass.  2.  Find  the 
Great  Dipper  and  the  North  Star.  3. 
Show  how  you  can  tell  directions  by  your 


shadow  at  noon.  4.  If  you  stood  at  the 
north  pole,  what  direction  would  be  on 
your  right?  What  direction  Suggestions 
on  your  left?  Answer  this  f^^  extra  work 
question  by  the  use  of  a  globe.  5.  Answer 
the  same  questions  for  the  south  pole. 


VI.     General  Facts  about  the  Earth 
1.    Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth 


Hundreds  of  years  ago,  before  America 
was  discovered,  men  thought  that  the 
The  form  of  earth  was  fiat.  It  certainly 
the  earth  seemed  flat  to  them,  just  as  it 
does  to  us.  A  few  learned  men,  however, 
believed  that  the  earth  was 
a  round  ball,  and  that  if 
a  person  should  travel 
straight  on  in  one  direction, 
he  would,  in  time,  return  to 
the  place  from  which  he 
started.  You  can  see  how 
this  would  be  if  you  push 
your  finger  straight  around 
on  the  outside  of  an  orange 
until  it  comes  back  to  the 
starting  point. 

At  that  time  men  were  in 
the  habit  of  going  to  a  land 
called  India  for  spices,  silks, 
and  jewels.  To  reach  India 
from  Spain  they  traveled 
thousands  of  miles  eastward. 
Christopher  Columbus  was 
one  of  the  men  who  be- 
lieved that  the  earth  was  round.  So 
he  thought  he  could  reach  India  just  as 
well  by  going  westward  across  the  ocean. 
He  also  thought  that  the  distance  would 
be  much  less.  He  therefore  went  to  the 
king  of  Spain  and  asked  him  for  ships 
and  men  to  make  the  journey. 


The  king  refused  the  request  because 
the  plan  seemed  foolish,  but  Queen  Isa- 
bella came  to  Columbus'  aid.  At  last,  on 
August  3,  1492,  he  sailed  westward  from 
Spain  out  into  the  open  Atlantic  Ocean 


Fig.  36.  —The  fleet  of  Columbus 

(Fig.  36) .  Almost  everyone  thought  that 
he  was  going  on  a  voyage  from  which  he 
would  never  return;  but  after  a  journey 
of  several  weeks  and  many  adventures, 
he  discovered  land  on  October  12.  The 
land  he  discovered  is  one  of  the  Bahama 
Islands  (Fig.  58). 


36 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


Thinking  he  had  reached  India,  Colum- 
bus called  the  natives  Indians.  He  did 
not  know  that  a  continent  and  a  large 
ocean  still  lay  between  him  and  India. 

After  Columbus  had  returned  in  safety, 
other   men   dared   to   explore   the   New 

World,  as  it  was 
called,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the 
Old  World,  where 
all  white  men  then 
lived.  One  of  these 
explorers,  named 
Magellan,  started 
to  sail  entirely 
around  the  earth. 
He  was  killed 
when  he  reached 
the  Philippine 
Islands    but    his 


Fig.  37 


men  went  on  and  completed  the  voyage. 
That  was  in  the  year  1522,  and  it  was  the 
first  time  that  anyone  ever  sailed  around 
the  earth.  Since  then  many  people  have 
made  the  journey,  in  both  directions, 
and  the  earth  has  been  studied  so  care- 
fully that  everyone  now  knows  that  it  is 
round. 

The  great,  round  earth  is  a  huge  ball, 
or  sphere.  The  reason  why  it  does  not 
Why  the  earth  appear  round  to  you  is  that 
does  not  seem  you  See  SO  little  of  it  at  a  time. 
If  you  see  very  little  of  an 
orange,  for  example,  it  will  not  look 
round.  To  prove  this,  place  a  piece  of 
paper  with  a  small  hole  in  it  upon  an 
orange  so  that  none  of  the  surface  of  the 
orange  is  seen,  except  that  which  shows 
through  the  hole.  You  will  then  observe 
that  this  part  appears  to  be  flat. 

If  we  could  get  far  enough  away  from 
the  earth  to  see  a  large  part  of  it  at  once, 


we  could  see  that  it  is  round  (Fig.  46). 
We  know  that  the  moon  is  round,  be- 
cause we  look  at  it  from  a  great  distance. 

Our  earth  is  very  large;  in  fact,  it  is 
much  larger  than  the  moon.  A  lofty 
mountain  seems  to  us  very  The  size  of 
high,  but  even  the  highest  *^®  ®**^ 
mountains  are  only  a  very  small  part  of 
the  great  earth;  when  compared  to  the 
whole  sphere,  they  are  no  larger  than  a 
speck  of  dust  compared  to  an  apple.  The 
loftiest  mountains  are  rarely  more  than 
three  or  four  miles  high,  but  the  diameter 
of  the  earth  (Fig.  37),  or  the  distance 
from  one  side  to  the  other  through  the 
center,  is  nearly  8,000  miles. 

The  distance  around  the  earth,  on  the 
outside,  called  the  circumference,  is  about 
25,000  miles.  This  distance,  as  you  see,  is 
a  little  more  than  three  times  the  diameter. 
The  circumference  of  any  sphere  is  always 
a  little  more  than  three  times  its  diameter. 


1.  What  did  people  formerly  think 
about  the  form  of  the  earth?  2.  What  is 
its  form?  3.  Tell  the  story  of  Review 
Columbus.  4.  Why  did  he  questions 
call  the  savages  Indians?  5.  Why  was 
the  land  he  discovered  called  the  New 
World?  6.  What  makes  Magellan's  voy- 
age important?  7.  Explain  why  the  earth 
does  not  appear  to  us  to  be  a  sphere. 
8.  What  is  meant  by  the  diameter  of 
the  earth?   By  the  circumference? 

1.  Trace  Columbus'  voyage  on  a  globe. 
Find  India  on  a  globe  and  see  how  one 
can  ffo  by  water  from  Europe      „ 

°        -^  ^  ^  ^  Suggestions 

to  India  by  saiUng  eastward;      for  extra 
by  sailing  westward.  2.  Make      ^°'^ 
a  sphere  in  clay.    Measure  its  diameter 
with  a  needle,  and  its  circumference  with 
a  string. 


DAILY   MOTION   OF   THE   EARTH 


37 


2.    Daily  Motion  of  the  Earth 


It  does  not  seem  to  us  that  the  earth 
is  moving,  but  the  ground  on  which  you 
The  earth's  stand  is  really  moving  faster 
rotation  than  any  passenger  train  that 

you  ever  saw.  The  whole  earth  is  turn- 
ing around  like  a  top.  This  motion  is 
called  its  rotation.  Since  the  earth  turns 
completely  around,  or  makes  one  com- 
plete rotation,  every  twenty-four  hours, 
this  motion  is  called  its  daily  rotation. 

It  is  this  daily  rotation  that  causes  day 
and  night.  An  electric  lamp  can  light 
How  rotation  ^uly  One  half  of  a  ball  at  a 
causes  day  time,  as  you  know  (Fig.  38) . 
an  mg  rpj^^  ^^^  .^  ^  kind  of  lamp  for 

the  earth  ball,  for  all  the  light  of  our  day 
comes  from  the  sun.  The  sun,  then,  can 
light  only  one  half  of  the  great  earth  at 
a  time. 

This  being  the  case,  if  our  globe  stood 
perfectly  still,  it  would  always  be  day  on 
the  side  facing  the  sun,  and  night  on 
the  other  side. 

Since  the  earth  rotates,  the  part  that 
is  getting  the  light  is  always  changing. 
Thus,  while  the  sun  is  setting  for  some 
people,  it  is  rising  for  others.  When  it  is 
noon  where  you  live,  it  is  midnight  at  the 
point  opposite  you,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  earth. 

This  is  why  there  is  a  period  of  daylight 
and  a  period  of  darkness  at  the  place 
where  you  live.  These  two  periods 
together  must  last  twenty-four  hours, 
because  the  earth  makes  one  complete 
rotation  in  that  time. 

The  daily  rotation  also  causes  sunrise 
and  sunset.  Our  earth  seems  to  be  stand- 
ing still,  while  each  day  the  sun  seems  to 
rise  in  the  east,  to  pass  over  us,  and  to  set 


in  the  west.    Yet  we  have  just  seen  that 
the  earth  is  not  by  any  means  stand- 
ing still.    Neither  does  the  sun 
really  "rise"  or  "set."     The  motion  causes 
reason  that  the  sun  seems  to  sunnseand 

.  sunset 

rise  m  the  east  is  that  the 
earth  is  always  rotating  toward  the  east. 
We  first  get  the  light  of  the  sun  from  that 
direction  because  the  earth  is  turning 
toward  that  direction.  The  sun  seems  to 
set  in  the  west  because,  as  the  earth  con- 
tinues to  rotate,  we  see  the  sun  last  in  the 
west. 

Although  men  speak  of  the  sun  rising 
in  the  east  and  setting  in  the  west,  they 
really  know  better.  They  express  their 
thoughts  in  that  way  simply  because  it 
is  the  easiest  way.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  think  of  any  better  way.     Can  you? 


Fig.  38 

Hundreds  of  years  ago,  however,  all 
people  thought  that  the  sun  really 
rose,  and  that  after  moving  across  the 
heavens,  it  really  set  in  the  west.  Our 
use  of  the  words  sunrise  and  sunset  has 
come  down  to  us  from  that  time. 


38 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


Since  the  earth  is  rotating  with  so  great 
speed,  why  can  we  not  notice  it?  The 
answer  is  simple.  Everything  on  the 
earth  is  moving  with  it,  including  our- 
selves. We  therefore  do  not  rush  past 
other  objects  as  we  do  on  a  moving 
train;  yet  the  only  way  of  seeing  that 
we  are  moving  would  be  to  observe  that 
we  were  passing  the  objects  about  us. 

Why  are  we  not  all  hurled  away  from 
the  earth?     When  the  string  breaks  by 
Why  rotation    which  a  stone  is 
does  not  hurl    being    whirled 

us  away  j        ,  i 

around,  the 
stone  flies  off.  Why,  then, 
do  not  we  and  other  ob- 
jects, such  as  the  water  in 
the  ocean,  fly  away  into 
space? 

The  reason  is  that  the 
earth  draws  everything  to- 
ward it,  and  holds  it  there. 
If  you  push  a  book  from 
your  desk,  it  falls  to  the 
floor;  and  when  you  spring 
upward  into  the  air  you 
quickly  return  to  the 
ground.  All  objects  are 
drawn  downward  because  the  earth  is 
pulling  upon  them.  This  force,  which 
draws  all  objects  to  the  earth,  is  called 
gravity,  and  you  see  how  very  important 
it  is. 

You  have  perhaps  watched  a  wheel 
spin  about  on  a  rod  or  pin,  the  rod  or 
Meaning  of  P^^^  holding  it  in  place  and 
axis  and  poles  carrying  its   weight.      The 

of  the  earth  <  i  •  i    •  i 

earth  spins  around  m  much 
the  same  way;  but  no  rod  is  necessary 
to  hold  it  in  place.  What  a  mighty  rod 
it  would  have  to  be,  if  there  were  one! 
A  spinning  top  does  not  turn  around  a 


North  Pole 


Fig.  39 


rod,  either.  It  turns  around  a  line  run- 
ning through  its  center,  which  is  called 
its  axis.  The  earth  also  rotates  around 
its  axis. 

The  axis  of  the  earth  is  really  nothing 
that  you  can  see.  It  can  be  represented, 
however,  by  a  straight  line  that  runs 
through  the  center  of  the  earth  and  ex- 
tends to  the  surface  in  both  directions. 
Such  a  line  is  called  the  axis  of  the  earth 
(Fig.  39),  and  the  two  ends  of  the  line  are 
called  the  poles.  One  end  of 
the  axis  is  the  the  north  pole, 
and  the  other  the  south 
pole. 

You  can  understand  this 
better  by  running  a  long, 
slender  stick,  or  needle, 
through  the  center  of  an 
apple.  The  stick  represents 
the  axis,  and  the  places 
where  its  two  ends  appear 
at  the  surface  represent  the 
two  poles  of  the  earth.  You 
can  then  spin  the  apple 
very  much  as  the  earth 
spins  around  on  the  line 
called  its  axis  (Fig.  38). 
If  you  were  to  go  far  northward  from 
the  place  where  you  live,  you  would  pass 
through  the  land  of  the  Eskimos;  and  if 
you  could  go  on,  you  would,  in  time,  come 
to  the  north  pole.  Or,  if  you  should  go 
south,  and  went  far  enough,  you  would 
come  to  the  south  pole. 

Many  men  have  tried  to  cross  the  icy 
seas  that  surround  the  north  pole  (Fig. 
40) ;  but,  until  1909,  no  one  had  been  able 
to  get  quite  so  far  as  the  pole.  In  that 
year  Admiral  Peary,  after  many  trials,  at 
last  reached  the  north  pole ;  and  Captain 
Amundsen  reached  the  south  pole  in  1911. 


South  Pole 


THE  ZONES   AND  THE   HEMISPHERES 


39 


Of  course,  Commander  Peary  did  not  find 
anything  at  the  north  pole  to  mark  the 
place.  He  was  able  to  tell  that  he  was 
there  by  the  position  of  the  sun.  If  he 
had  been  there  during  the  night,  he  would 
have  found  the  North  Star,  toward  which 
the  earth's  axis  points,  almost  directly 
over  his  head. 

Midway  between  the  poles  we  think  of 
another  line,  drawn  around  the  earth  on 
Meaning  of  the  outsidc  (Fig.  41).  This  is 
equator  called  the  equator,  because  all 

parts  of  it  are  equally  distant  from  each 
of  the  poles.  The  distance  around  the 
earth  was  given  on  p.  36.  What,  then,  is 
the  length  of  the  equator? 

As  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis,  all  points 
on  the  surface  must  go  with  it,  just  as  every 
part  of  the  skin  of  an  apple  turns  with  the 
apple.  Since  the  earth  makes  one  com- 
plete turn  each  day,  a  man  at  the  equator 
travels  25,000  miles  in  twenty-four  hours. 
This  is  at  the  rate  of  over  1,000  miles  an 
hour,  while  the  fastest  trains  travel  little 
more  than  sixty  miles  an  hour! 


1.  Describe  the  daily  motion  of  the 
earth.  What  is  this  motion  called?  2. 
How  does  this  motion  cause  day  and 
night?   3.  How  does  it  cause  sunrise  and 


sunset?  4.  Why  can  we  not  observe  that 
the  earth  is  rotating?  5.  Why  is  not  every 
loose  object  hurled  from  the  Review 
earth  by  this  rapid  motion?  questions 
6.  What  is  meant  by  the  axis  of  the 
earth?    By  the  poles?    7.  Point  toward 


Fig.  40 

each  of  the  poles.    8.  What  is  meant  by 
the  equator?    How  long  is  it? 

1.  Locate  the  poles  on  such  a  sphere; 
and  also  represent  the  equator.  2.  Use 
a   horseshoe   magnet   to   see       ^ 

.  °  Suggestions 

how  it  attracts  iron.  3.  With  for  extra 
a  globe  or  an  apple,  and  an  ^^^^ 
electric  light,  show  how  it  is  day  on  one 
side  of  the  earth  while  it  is  night  on  the 
other  side.  Show  also  why  the  sun  ap- 
pears to  rise  in  the  east.  4.  Where  did 
people,  long  ago,  suppose  that  the  sun 
went  at  night? 


3.    The  Zones  and  the  Hemispheres 


The  hottest  part  of  the  earth  is  near 
the  equator.    The  reason  for  this  is  that 

the  sun,  at  midday,  is  directly 
ahotbeit^*^  ovcr  the  heads  of  the  people 
around  the  who  live  in  that  region.  You 
oTthe  earth      know  that  the  sun's  rays  feel 

warmer  at  noon  than  in  the 
early  evening,  because  the  sun  is  more 
nearly  overhead  at  noon.    At  the  equator. 


however,  and  for  many  miles  to  the  north 
and  south  of  it,  the  sun  is  high  in  the 
heavens  both  in  summer  and  winter. 
Thus  there  is  a  wide  belt,  extending  all 
the  way  around  the  earth,  that  never  has 
any  winter;  it  is  warm  every  day  in  the 
year,  as  it  is  in  summer  where  we  live. 

The  northern  boundary  of  this  hot  belt 
is  called  the  tropic  of  Cancer  (Fig.  41); 


40 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


it  is  a  line  about  1,500  miles  north  of 
the  equator.  The  southern  boundary, 
The  bound-  which  is  about  1,500  miles 
bSrandUs  south  from  the  equator,  is 
name  called  the  tropic  of  Capricorn. 

In  all  the  vast  space  between  these  two 
lines,  or  tropics j  the  sun  is  straight  over- 
head during  a  part  of  the  year;  and  it  is 
never  very  far  from  overhead  at  noon. 

Point  out  these  two  lines  on  Fig.  41. 
How  many  miles  wide  does  this  belt  seem 
to  be?  Over  all  this 
vast  region  on  the 
lowlands  the  weather 
is  hot,  or  torrid,  and 
for  that  reason  this 
is  called  the  torrid 
zone.  It  is  also  called 
the  tropical  zone,  be- 
cause it  is  bounded 
by  the  two  tropics. 

It  makes  a  great 
difference  on  the  earth 
whether  the  sun  is 
nearly  overhead  or 
not.  For  example,  the 
warm  weather  during 
every  day  of  the  year 


SouthToie 


Fig.  41 


Effects  of 
the  heat  on 
life  there 


in  the  tropics  causes  the  vege- 
tation there  to  be  very  differ- 
ent from  ours.  In  sections 
1.  Its  effects  on  where  there  is  much  rain, 
plants  grow  very  rapidly.  You 
have,  perhaps,  noticed  how  grass  and 
other  plants  thrive  on  warm,  damp  days. 
Where  there  is  such  weather  all  the  time, 
plants  grow  in  great  numbers  and  very 
rapidly.  Many  kinds  of  trees  are  found 
in  the  forests,  and  the  vines,  trees,  and 
other  plants  grow  so  close  together  that 
one  cannot  get  through  them  without 
cutting  a  path. 


The  negroes  of  Central  Africa  live  in 
the  tropics,  and  the  effects  of  the  heat 
upon  them  are  seen  in  many  2.  its  effects 
ways.  For  example,  they  do  "^^  the  people 
not  have  to  work  hard  to  get  food.  Fruits 
can  be  picked  from  the  trees  and  bushes 
at  any  time  of  the  year;  and  if  beans, 
potatoes,  and  corn  are  wanted,  they  can 
be  made  to  grow  very  easily.  The  need 
of  clothing  makes  little  trouble,  partly 
because  not  much  of  it  is  wanted.  Fig. 
42  shows  how  little 
may  be  worn.  Some- 
times skins  of  animals 
are  used;  but  a  com- 
mon material  is  cloth 
made  from  the  bark 
and  fiber  of  trees  and 
other  plants  that  grow 
there. 

Shelter,  likewise, 
is  easily  provided. 
Sometimes  the  people 
live  in  trees,  or  in 
caves,  as  the  Swiss 
Family  Robinson 
lived  for  a  time. 
Sometimes  they  stick 
branches  of  trees  into  the  ground  in  the 
form  of  a  circle,  fasten  the  upper  ends 
together,  and  then  cover  the  sides  and 
top  with  such  materials  as  brush,  mud, 
grass,  and  straw  (Fig.  42) .  Their  huts  are 
always  very  simple ;  they  usually  have  no 
windows,  and  are  only  one  story  high.  A 
savage  negro,  when  he  first  saw  one  of 
our  houses,  cried  out,  ''This  is  not  a  hut; 
it  is  a  mountain  with  many  caves  in  it!" 
You  can  see  that  such  people  do  not  have 
to  work  hard  for  food,  clothing,  or  shelter. 
Are  they  fortunate  to  have  the  sun  so 
directly  over  their  heads? 


THE  ZONES   AND   THE  HEMISPHERES 


41 


Why  there  are 
cooler  belts 
both  north 
and  south  of 
the  torrid 
zone 


North  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  sun,  even 

at  noon,  never  stands  directly  overhead; 
and  the  greater  the  distance 
from  the  equator,  the  greater 
is  the  slant  at  which  the  sun's 
rays  shine  upon  the  earth. 
Our  country  is  in  this  belt, 

and  here  at  noon  you  al- 
ways  find    your    shadow 

pointing  north ;  for  the  sun 

is  south  of  you.  Notice  the 

direction  and  length  of  your 

shadow  at  midday,  and  the 

position  of  the  sun  at  that 

time. 

South  of  the  torrid  zone, 

also,  the  sun  never  stands 

directly  overhead.    But  the 

people  living  there  find  their 

shadows  pointing  south  at 

noon,  because   the  sun  is 

north  of  them. 

Since  the  sun's  rays  strike 

the  earth  at  a  slant  in  both 

of  these  belts,  it  is  much  cooler  in  them 

than  in  the  torrid  zone. 

There  is  a  belt,  then,  on  each  side  of 

the  broad  torrid  zone,  where  it  is  neither 
very  hot  nor  very  cold.  The 
climate  there  is  called  temper- 
ate, and  in  these  belts  the  sum- 
mers are  warm  and  the  winters 
cold.     The  belt  north  of  the 

torrid  zone  is  called  the  north  temperate 

zone.     It  extends  around  the  earth  all 

the  way  from   the  tropic  of   Cancer  to 

the  Arctic  circle  (Fig.  41).    How  much 

of    the   United    States    lies  within   this 

zone? 

The  belt  south  of  the  torrid  zone  is 

called  the  south  temperate  zone,  as  you 

might  expect.     It   extends   around   the 


earth  from  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  to  the 
Antarctic  circle. 

Near  the  poles  the  rays  of  the  sun 
reach  the  earth  at  a  still  greater  slant, 
much  as  they  do  with  us  early  in  the 
morning  or  late  in  the  afternoon.  Even 
in  the  middle  of  the  day  the  sun  lies  low 


Fig.  42 


Brown  Bros. 


The  names  of 
these  cooler 
belts,  and 
their  bound- 
aries 


in  the  sky,  near  the  horizon,  and  the 
shadows  are  very  long.  Therefore,  the 
climate  there  is  very  cold,  or     „^    ^ 

,  Why  there 

frigid;  the  ground  never  are  two  cold 
thaws  out ;  and  the  ice  never     zones,  and 

;  their  names 

entirely  disappears  from  the 

sea    (Fig.   40).     Indeed,   there  is   never 

any  warm  summer  near  the  poles,  just 

as  there  is  never  any  winter  near  the 

equator. 

The  two  regions  around  the  poles  are 
called  the  frigid  zones.  That  about  the 
north  pole  is  called  the  north  frigid  zone, 
the  other  the  south  frigid  zone.  Since 
they  surround  the  poles,  they  are  also 
sometimes  called  the  polar  zones.  The 
north  frigid  zone  is  the  home  of  the 
Eskimos    (Fig.   44).    But.  there   are   no 


42 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


people  living  in  the  south  frigid  zone, 
although  a  large  body  of  land  is  there 
(Fig.  46). 

The  effects  of  the  cold  on  life  in  the 
frigid  zone  are  as  striking  as  those  of  the 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  43.  —  Eskimos  in  northern  Greenland 

This  is  their  summer  home.  In  winter  what  kind  is  used  (Fig.  45)? 
These  people  frequently ]trade  with  the  whites.  What  shows  that?  Can  you 
see  why  this  land  could  not  be  cultivated  even  though  the  temperatures 
permitted? 

heat  on  life  in  the  tropics.  For  example, 
no  trees  can  grow  in  such  a  country.  No 
Effects  of  the  ^oubt  many  Eskimos  have 
cold  on  never  seen  a  tree  of  any  kind. 

life  there  -r  . ,  ,         , 

In  summer  the  men  go  hunt- 

1.   Its  effects  on    .         .  ■,-,  ■,  , 

plants  and         lug  m  Small  cauocs  or  kayaks; 

animals 


these  canoes  and  sleds  are  not  made  of 

wood  Uke  ours.  The  reason  is  that  wood 

does  not  grow  there.    The  only  wood  that 

the  Eskimos  have  is  that  which  drifts 

ashore  from   other   lands   or   from   the 

wrecks  of  vessels.     There  is 

so  little  of  this,  that  pieces 

of  wood  are  highly  prized. 

An  Eskimo,  therefore,  will 

gladly    exchange    valuable 

furs  for  a  small  amount  of 

wood. 

Only  small  plants  grow  in 
so  cold  a  country,  such  as 
mosses,  grasses,  and  very 
low  bushes;  and  the  wild 
plants  furnish  no  food  ex- 
cept a  few  small  berries. 
With  so  little  vegetation 
there  can  be  few  wild  ani- 
mals on  the  land,  for  they 
would  have  nothing  to  eat. 
There  are  a  few  reindeer, 
foxes,  and  wolves,  but 
scarcely  any  other  land 
animals. 

What,  then,  can  the  Eski- 
mos themselves  find  to  eat? 
Not  very  many  ,  ^^s  effects  on 

things,     to    be    the  people 

sure.  They  have  «•  on  their  food 

-  and  clothing 

to  go  to  the  sea. 


and  in  winter  they  go  on  long 
and  dangerous  journeys  over  the  ice  on 
sleds   or .  sledges   drawn   by   dogs.    But 


not  to  the  land,  for  their 
food.  From  one  year's  end  to  another, 
they  are  engaged  in  fishing,  and  in 
hunting  the  seal  and  walrus;  and  now 
and  then  they  catch  sea-birds  and  the 
polar  bear.  They  have  very  httle  food 
except  the  flesh  of  these  animals.  Even 
that  is  difficult  to  get,  especially  in 
winter  when  the  sea  is  frozen  over  with 
thick  ice. 


THE   ZONES  AND   THE   HEMISPHERES 


43 


Fig.  44. 


These  sea  animals  supply  oil  for  cook- 
ing as  well  as  for  heat  and  light  in  the 
long,   dark  winter.     The   seals   have   a 
layer  of  fat  under  the  skin 
which  helps  to  keep  them 
warm  in  winter.    This  seal 
fat,  or  blubber,  is  burned  in 
small  lamps.   But  the  Es- 
kimos do  not  do  much 
cooking.    They  are  fond  of 
raw  meat  and  like  to  eat  it 
even  when  it  is  frozen! 

Parts  of  the  bodies  of 
animals  take  the  place  of 
wood  in  supplying  the  men 
with  tools  and  weapons  for 
obtaining  food.  The  bones 
of  the  animals  are  used  to 
build  the  framework  of  the 
canoes  and  sledges,  and 
their  skins  are  stretched 
over  these   frames  in   place   of  boards. 
Bones  are  also  used  to  make  spears,  fish- 
hooks, pipes,  and  even  needles ;  and  skins 
are  made  into  harness  for 
the  dogs. 

The  Eskimos  need  the 
warmest  kind  of  clothing 
(Fig.  44).  Their  boots  are 
made  of  the  skins  of  ani- 
mals, with  the  fur  left  on. 
Their  clothes  are  also  made 
of  fur;  and  in  that  cold  land 
they  need  to  wear  these  furs 
both  in  summer  and  in  win- 
ter. How  different  this  is 
from  the  clothing  worn 
by  the  negroes  of  central 
Africa  (Figs.  1  and  42) ! 

The  Eskimo  houses  seem  even  stranger 
than  their  clothing.  Although  there  is 
plenty  of  stone  for  building,  it  hardly  pays 


b.   On  their 
plans  for  shel- 
ter 


to  build  stone  houses,  because  the  Eski- 
mos must  move  from  place  to  place  in 
order  to  find  food.  Very  often 
whole  villages 
must  be  moved 
many  miles  on  this  ac- 
count. 

In  summer,  therefore, 
the  Eskimos  live  in  tents 
made  of   skins  (Fig.   43), 
which  are  easily  taken 
down  and  carried  about. 
In  winter  they  live  in  huts 
made  of  snow.    There  is 
always  plenty  of  snow  at 
hand,  no  matter  where  the 
people  happen  to  be;  and 
in  an  hour  or  two  they  can 
build  an  igloo,  as  the  Eski- 
mo snow  hut  is  called. 
Fig.  45  is  a  picture  of 
one  of  these  igloos.   It  is  about  forty  feet 
around  the  outside,  and  is  made  of  blocks 
of  snow  piled  one  on  another,  until  it  is 


©  Brovm  Bros. 

An  Eskimo  and  his  sled 


©  Brorn 


Fig.  45.  —  An  igloo 


high  enough  inside  for  a  man  to  stand 
up.  The  entrance  is  through  a  snow 
tunnel  about  ten  feet  long,  so  low  that 


Fig.  46 


Fig.  46 


46 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


the  Eskimos  have  to  crawl  through  it  on 
their  hands  and  knees.  The  purpose  of 
this  tunnel  is  to  keep  the  cold  winds  out 
of  the  hut ;  and  when  all  the  persons  are 
inside,  the  tunnel  is  tightly  closed,  so  that 
no  wind  can  enter. 

A  stand,  made  of  snow,  is  used  for  the 
lamp.  Low  benches  of  snow,  covered 
with  furs,  are  used  for  beds.  A  whole 
family,  and  sometimes  two  families,  live 
in  a  single  hut  that  is  no  more  than  ten 
or  fifteen  feet  across. 

If  a  family  decides  to  remain  in  one 
place  a  second  winter,  a  new  hut  must  be 
built,  because  the  old  one  melts  down  dur- 
ing the  summer.  No  wonder  that  the 
huts  are  small! 

Thus  the  nearly  vertical  rays  of  the  sun 
in  the  tropical  belt  cause  food,  clothing, 
and  shelter  to  be  provided  in  one  way. 
The  great  slant  of  the  sun's  rays  in  the 
frigid  zone  causes  these  necessities  to  be 
provided  in  a  very  different  way.  In  the 
temperate  zone,  where  we  live,  the  mod- 
erate slant  of  the  rays  causes  them  to  be 
provided  in  a  third  way.  In  which  of 
these  zones  do  you  think  it  is  best  to 
live?    Why? 

Since  the  equator  is  midway  between 
the  poles,  it  divides  the  earth,  or  sphere. 
The  different  into  two  equal  parts,  called 
hemispheres  hemispheres  ihemi  means  half) . 
The  half  of  the  earth  north  of  the  equator 
is  called  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  that 
south  of  it  the  southern  hemisphere.  In 
which  of  these  is  the  United  States? 

The  earth  may  also  be  divided  into 
halves  by  a  circle  running  north  and  south 
through  both  poles.  The  western  half, 
in  which  the  New  World  lies,  is  called 
the  western  hemisphere.  The  eastern  half, 
or  the  Old  World,  is  called  the  eastern 


hemisphere.     You  will    find    these    two 
hemispheres  represented  in  Fig.  46. 

Although  these  two  hemispheres  seem 
to  touch  each  other  in  only  one  spot,  they 
are  really  the  halves  of  a  sphere,  and  their 
edges  touch  each  other  all  the  way  around. 
Cut  an  old  rubber  ball  in  two  and  place 
the  halves  side  by  side  to  see  how  this 
statement  is  true. 


1.  Why  is  there  a  hot  belt  around  the 
central  part  of  the  earth?  2.  Give  the 
boundaries  of  this  belt,  and  Review 
its  name.  3.  State  the  effects  questions 
of  the  heat  there  on  vegetation.  4.  Its 
effects  on  the  people.  5.  Why  is  there  a 
cooler  belt  north  and  south  of  the  tor- 
rid zone?  6.  Give  the  names  of  these 
cooler  belts  and  their  boundaries.  7. 
Why  are  there  two  cold  zones,  and  what 
are  their  names?  8.  State  the  effects 
of  the  cold  on  plants  and  animals  there. 
9.  Its  effects  on  the  food  and  clothing  of 
the  people.  10.  Its  effects  on  their  plans 
for  shelter.  11.  What  is  meant  by  hemi- 
spheres? What  is  meant  by  the  northern 
hemisphere?  By  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere? By  the  eastern  and  western 
hemispheres? 

1.  Write  a  story  telling  the  kinds  of 
clothing  you  would  need  in  each  zone  in 
going  from  the  north  to  the       „ 

*        ^  ^  Suggestions 

south    pole.      2.    In    passing        for  extra 

southward  on  such  a  journey,  ^°^^ 
in  what  different  directions  would  you 
look  at  noon  to  see  the  sun?  3.  Read  the 
story  of  Nannook,  an  Eskimo  boy,  in 
Child  Life  in  Other  Lands,  by  Avis  Perdue. 
4.  Do  you  think  that  life  in  the  tem- 
perate zones  is  more  or  less  healthful 
than  life  in  the  tropical  zone  or  the  Arctic 
zone?     Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE 


47 


4.     Latitude  and  Longitude 


If  we  learn  that  a  certain  place  is  in 
the  torrid  zone,  or  in  one  of  the  other 
zones  we  know  something  about  its  loca- 
tion; yet  we  do  not  know  very  much 
about  it,  because  each  zone  is  so  large. 

To  help  locate  places  more  exactly, 
other  circles  than  those  already  men- 
„      ,  tioned  are  used  upon  maps 

How  places  ^  ^ 

are  located  in  and  globes.  Some  of  these 
south  direct  circlcs  extend  east  and  west, 
tion  on  the  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  as 
you  can  see  in  Fig.  46.  The 
distance  between  them  is  measured,  not 
by  miles,  but  by  degrees,  each  of  which 
is  equal  to  about  seventy  miles.  How 
many  degrees  are  there  from  one  of  these 
circles  to  the  next  in  Fig.  46?  About 
how  many  miles  is  that?  We  can  thus 
quickly  learn  how  far  any  place  on  or 
near  one  of  these  circles  is  from  the 
equator.  For  example,  how  far  north 
of  the  equator  is  New  York  City  (Fig. 
59)?     Chicago? 

Instead,  however,  of  saying  that  a  place 
is  a  certain  number  of  degrees  north  or 
Meaning  of  south  of  the  equator,  we  say 
latitude  ^jjg^^  j^  -g  -j^  gQ  Y^g^Yiy  degrees 

north  or  south  latitude.     Latitude  means 
simply  the  distance  north  or  south  of  the 


equator.  Places  north  of  the  equator  are 
in  north  latitude,  and  those  south  of  it,  in 
south  latitude.  The  circles  running  east 
and  west,  which  are  drawn  to  show  the 
latitude  of  places,  are  called  circles  of  lati- 
tude. With  their  help,  find  the  latitude 
of  New  Orleans;   of  Boston  (Fig.  61). 

Other  circles,  extending  north  and 
south  from  pole  to  pole,  help  to  locate 
places  in  an  east  and  west 
direction. 


.      ,.  ,1     i  How  places 

A     line     that     ex-   are  located  in 


tends    through    England    is  ^^  ®f ^*.  ^^^. 

west  Qll*6Ct!10tl 

agreed  upon  as  the  starting 
point  in  measuring.     Places  east  of  this 
line  are  said  to  be  in  so  many  degrees 
east  longitude;    places  west  of  it,  in  so 
many  degrees  west  longitude. 

Longitude,  as  you  see,  means  simply  the 
distance  east  or  west  of  this  principal  line; 
and   these   circles   are  called      Meaning  of 
circles  of  longitude.     In  what      longitude 
longitude  is  New  York  City  (Fig.  59)? 


L  How  are  places  located  in  a  north 
and  south  direction  on  the  earth?  2. 
State  the  meaning  of  the  word  Review 
latitude.  3.  How  are  places  questions 
located  in  an  east  and  west  direction? 
4.  What  is  meant  by  longitude? 


5.    The  Continents  and  the  Oceans 


The  left  half  of  Fig.  46  shows  how  our 
half  of  the  earth  looks,  the  New  World 
Theconti-  that  Columbus  discovered. 
New  worw,  ^^^  ^^^^  ^i^^le  dots  that  you 
and  their  See  represent  islands;  but 
there  are  two  masses  of  land 


shape 


so  large  that  they  are  called  continents. 
Find  their  names,  if  you  do  not  already 


know  them.  Perhaps  you  can  point  to 
the  part  of  North  America  in  which  you 
live. 

Notice  the  form  of  our  continent.  It 
is  broad  in  the  north,  but  tapers  almost  to 
a  point  where  it  joins  South  America, 
giving  it  the  shape  of  a  triangle.  South 
America  is  very  similar  to  it  in  form. 


48 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


Draw  its   outline   by   using   only   three 
straight  lines. 

You  have  learned  that  there  is  about 
three  times  as  much  water  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  as  land;  but  more  than 
three  fourths  of  the  western  hemisphere 


'V 


The  oceans 
of  the  New 
World 


J  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Fig.  47.  —  An  ocean  liner 
Compare  the  great  ship  in  size  with  the  tug  that  is  towing  it  about 
the  harbor. 

is  water.  On  which  side  of  the  conti- 
nents is  the  largest  ocean^  and  what  is 

its  name?    What  ocean  is  east 

of  the  two  continents?   Find 

two  other  oceans  on  this  map. 
Why  are  they  of  much  less  importance 
to  us  than  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic? 
The  right  half  of  Fig.  46  shows  the  other 
half  of  the  earth,  the  Old  World.  There 
Thecontinents  j^  much  more  land  there  than 
and  oceans  of   in  our  hemisphere,  and  there 

the  Old  World  j.  a.-  .        ttti      . 

are  tour  continents.  What  are 
their  names?  The  largest  of  all  is  Asia, 
and  the  smallest  is  Australia.  The  most 
important  one  to  us,  however,  is  Europe. 
Can  you  tell  why? 

One  other  continent  appears  far  to  the 
south  both  in  the  eastern  and  the  west- 
ern hemispheres.  This  is  the  Antarctic 
continent,  which  is  too  cold  to  be  inhab- 
ited (p.  42). 

Four  of  the  oceans  in  the  Old  World  are 
parts  of  the  four  found  on  our  half  of  the 


earth.  Give  their  names.  There  is  a  fifth 
one,  called  the  Indian  Ocean.  What 
continents  largely  surround  it? 

Fig.  315  is  a  different  kind  of  map,  show- 
ing all  the  continents  and  oceans  to- 
gether. Name  the  continents  shown  there, 
and  point  out  each.  Name 
the  oceans,  and  point  out 
each.  Which  ocean  would 
one  cross  in  going  from  the 
United  States  to  Europe? 
From  the  United  States  to 
Asia?  Which  of  the  five 
oceans  is  most  important 
to  us? 

The  water  in  the  ocean 
occupies  vast  low  plains  on 

the    surface    of      The  depth  of 

the  earth.    The    ^^  ^^^^'^ 
depth  of  this  water  varies  greatly,  though 
it  is  a  Httle  over  two  miles  deep  on  the 


Fig.  48.  —  An  ocean  vessel  in  dry-dock 
The  water  has  been  pumped  out  from  aroxmd  the  ship 
in  this  dry-dock,  which  shows  you  how  far  it  must  sink 
into  the  water. 

average.  In  many  places,  however,  the 
ocean  is  more  than  four  miles  deep;  and 
in  one  place,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND  THE  OCEANS 


49 


depth  is  nearly  six  miles.  If  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  world  could  be  placed  in 
the  water  at  this  point,  its  peak  would 
not  rise  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  oceans  are  of  great  value  for 
transportation  as  well  as  for  water  for 
Value  of  the  ^^in.  They  are  broad  high- 
oceans  for        ways  upon  which  thousands 

transportation       <•     i  •  i  ^  t 

01  ships  are  always  traveling, 
carrying  people,  food,  iron  and  steel 
goods,  mail,  and  many  other  things. 
A  single  large  steamship,  such  as  that 
shown  in  Fig.  47,  may  employ  500  or 
600  men  and  carry  several  thousand 
passengers,  besides  a  large  quantity  of 
freight. 

One  of  the  five  oceans  is  far  more  im- 
portant than  any  of  the  others.  Can  you, 
by  examining  Fig.  315,  suggest  which  it  is, 
and  the  reason?  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant ocean  routes  in  the  world  is  that 
between  New  York  and  Liverpool.  Trace 
it  on  that  map.  Many  other  great  coast 
cities  of  Europe  trade  extensively  with 
New  York.  Name  some  of  these  cities, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  315.  The  fastest  steamers 
need  only  five  or  six  days  for  the  voyage 
across  the  Atlantic. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  their 
way  is  that  of  loading  and  unloading 
^.^   , .  freight.  Wagons  can  be  driven 

Difficulties  i  •  i  -i 

and  dangers  alongside  a  railway  car  and 
in  ocean  quickly  filled  or  emptied.   But 

transportation  .  . 

a  large  ship  may  sink  thirty 
or  more  feet  into  the  water  (Fig.  48),  so 
that  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  place  where 
it  can  come  close  to  shore.  Besides  this, 
it  cannot  load  or  unload  where  there 
are  large  waves,  such  as  are  caused  by 
storms. 

Again,  ships  meet  with  many  dangers 
upon  the  ocean.    Storms  are  often  severe, 


and  the  waves  are  so  high  that  some- 
times they  sweep  over,  and  for  a  moment 
almost  cover  up,  even  very  large  ves- 
sels. When  far  out  from  land,  large,  well- 
built  ships  are  not  in  serious  danger  in 
such  weather,  but  smaller  vessels,  espe- 
cially those  that  are  old  or  poorly  built, 
may  be  destroyed. 

When  approaching  land,  however,  sail- 
ors of  all  vessels  must  be  careful.     The 


Fig.  49.  —  A  reef 


©  Brown  Bros. 


shores  of  large  lakes  and  the  ocean  are 
often  very  irregular,  and  the  depth  of 
the  water  may  change  quickly.  In  some 
places  there  are  dangerous  shallows,  in 
others  hidden  rocks,  or  reefs,  that  lie  near 
the  surface  (Fig.  49). 

There  are  also  currents  that  may  float 
a  vessel  out  of  its  course;  and  fogs  are 
often  so  dense  that  a  person  can  see  only 
a  short  distance  ahead.  It  is  then  very 
easy  to  lose  one's  way  at  sea.  In  addition 
to  all  this,  strong  winds  and  high  waves 
may  drive  a  ship  in  the  wrong  direction, 
in  spite  of  all  that  can  be  done  to  pre- 
vent it. 

Not  all  these  difficulties  and  dangers 
can  be  overcome,  but  much  is  done  to 
make  shipping  both  easy  and  safe.    The 


50 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


irregular  shape  of  the  coast  itself  helps 
toward  this  end.  Very  often  the  land 
partly  surrounds  a  body  of  water,  as  in 


X^^JWCX^  <i» 


««*»»'i<*S^^^'«*'»**l 


■i'i-*am<iie^itlfgksx''Mi  iiiiiiSil'i^fcte, 


dangers  are 
met 

1.    How  safe 
harbors  are 
obtained 


Fig.  50 

Find  here  and  describe  a  harbor;  a  bay;  a  point;  a  cape;  a  penin 
sula;  an  island;  an  isthmus;  a  strait. 

Fig.  50,  forming  what  is  called  a  hay. 

Some  of  these  bays  are  very  large,  being 

,  ...    even  hundreds  of  miles  long, 

How  such  dif-  ,     ' 

Acuities  and     but  many  more  are  quite 

small.    Many  of  the  small 

bays  have  an 

opening    large 

enough  for  ves- 
sels to  enter  easily,  but  small 
enough  to  shut  out  most 
of  the  fierce  waves.  If  the 
water  is  deep,  as  is  often 
the  case,  such  a  small  bay 
makes  a  fine  harbor  (Fig. 
50);  that  is,  a  place  where 
vessels  may  enter  and  be 
protected  from  storms  and 
waves. 

For  the  purpose  of  load- 
ing and  unloading  ships, 
piers  of  wood  or  stone,  called 
wharves,  are  built  from  the 
shores  of  the  harbor  out 
into  the  deep  water.    Even 


large  vessels  can  be  firmly  fastened,  or 
moored,  to  these  wharves,  and  trucks  or 
railway  cars  can  be  drawn  out  on  them 
close  to  the  sides  of  the  ves- 
sels. Thus  a  convenient  and 
safe  way  is  found  for  handling 
goods  that  are  carried  on 
vessels. 

Harbors  are  so  important 
that  they  are  sometimes  made 
on  coasts  where  there  are  no 
good  natural  harbors.    This  is 
very  expensive  work,  but  it 
pays.  Walls  of  rock  are  built 
in  such  a  way  as  nearly  to  in- 
close a  body  of  water,  much 
as  the  water  of  a  bay  is  in- 
closed by  land.    Such  a  wall  is 
called  a  breakwater  (Fig.  52),  because  it 
breaks  the  force  of  the  waves  and  prevents 
them  from  entering  the  space  behind. 

It  often  happens  that  harbors  are  not 
as  deep  as  they  need  to  be.    The  vessels 


iVy  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  51 
The  wharves  in  this  picture  were  photographed  from  an  airplane.   Find 
two  ocean  vessels  in  this  picture;    five  wharves;   lighters;    warehouses; 
freight  cars. 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND  THE  OCEANS 


51 


now  used  are  much  larger  and  sink  more 
deeply  into  the  water  than  those  formerly 
used.      On  that  account  many  harbors 


Fig.  52 


©  Bro-wn  Bros. 


that  were  once  deep  enough  are  now  too 
shallow.  All  the  time,  too,  the  waves 
and  tides  are  bringing  sediment  that  set- 
tles in  the  harbors,  slowly  filUng  them  up. 

Vast  sums  of  money  have  to  be  spent, 
therefore,  in  deepening  harbors.  The 
loose  sand  and  mud  are  dug  out  by 
dredges;  but  when  the  bottom  is  soUd 
rock,  it  has  to  be  blasted  out.  This  work 
is  of  so  great  importance  to  so  many 
people  that  the  United  States  govern- 
ment spends  millions  of  dollars  every  year 
in  doing  it  (Fig.  53). 

So  long  as  a  ship  lies  in  a  good  harbor, 
it  is  safe  from  most  dangers.  But  when 
2.  How  ships  i^  is  outside,  on  its  way  from 
are  guided         one  harbor  to  another,  dan- 

along  the  coast 

gers  are  ever  present.  Did 
you  ever  stop  to  think  how  a  vessel 
finds  its  way  on  the  great  ocean? 

While  a  ship  is  out  of  sight  of  land,  its 
officers  must  guide  it  by  the  position  of 


the  sun  or  of  certain  stars,  using  the  com- 
pass and  other  instruments.  But  during 
storms  and  foggy  weather,  the  winds  and 
currents  may  cause  even  a  large  steam- 
ship to  drift  out  of  its  course.  Then,  as  a 
ship  approaches  land,  the  chief  help  is 
from  lighthouses  (Fig.  54) ,  which  are  built 
in  many  places  along  the  coast. 

Often  the  land  extends  out  into  the 
water,  forming  what  is  called  a  point  or  a 
cape,  or  if  large  and  almost  surrounded 
by  water,  a  peninsula  (Fig.  50).  Light- 
houses are  placed  far  out  on  such  points 
or  capes  or  peninsulas,  or  on  islands  near 
the  mainland,  so  that  their  Ughts  may  be 
seen  a  long  distance  over  the  water.  They 
are  also  built  elsewhere,  wherever  the 
danger  requires. 

In  some  places  there  are  dangerous 
shallows,  or  shoals,  where  it  is  impossible 


©  Brown  Brc 

Fig.  53.  —  Deepening  New  York  harbor 


52 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


to  build  a  lighthouse.  In  that  case,  ships 
with  lights  on  their  masts,  called  light- 
ships (Fig.  55),  are  securely  anchored 
near  by  to  give  warning  to  sailors. 


Fig.  54 


©  Brown  Bros. 


When  the  captain  sees  the  light  of  a 
lighthouse  or  lightship,  he  knows  that  he 
is  nearing  land  and  must  be  very  careful. 
How  can  he  tell  which  light  he  sees  when 
there  are  so  many  lighthouses?  This  is 
not  difficult,  for  the  lights  are  not  alike. 
Some  are  white,  others  red;  some  give  a 
steady  light,  others  turn  around  and,  as 
they  turn,  send  out  flash  after  flash.  There 
are  many  different  kinds,  and  the  maps, 
or  charts,  that  all  ships  carry,  tell  the  cap- 
tain where  each  is  placed.  He  also  knows 
the  special  kind  of  lighthouse  to  be  found 
at  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  for  which  he 
is  bound. 

In  case  of  heavy  fog,  when  the  lights 
cannot  be  seen,  powerful  horns  and 
whistles  are  blown  for  a  warning.  The 
lighthouses  and  lightships  are  well  pro- 
vided with  these;  they  are  blown  every 
few  seconds,  or  minutes,  according  to 
the  need.  When  sailors  approach  the 
coast  during  foggy  weather,  they  always 


listen    for    the    sound    of    the    foghorn. 

By  such  helps  as  these  a  vessel  finds 
its  way  to  the  entrance  of  the  port  to 
which  it  is  going.  What  a  lonesome  life 
the  people  who  live  in  the  lighthouses 
and  lightships  must  lead,  attending  to 
the  lamps  and  giving  warning  in  the 
fogs!  But  how  important  their  work  is 
in  saving  ships  from  destruction  on  the 
wave-beaten  coasts! 

The  entrance,  or  channel,  to  a  harbor 
is  often  narrow,  and  sometimes  on  each 
side  there  are  reefs  and  shoals  3.  The  use 
on  which  a  vessel  might  be  °»«d« «« i>"oys 
wrecked.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that 
the  channel  be  clearly  marked.  This  is 
done  by  placing  hollow  iron  buoys  here 
and  there.  These  float  on  the  surface, 
but  are  anchored  firmly  in  their  places. 
They  are  guide-posts  to  the  sailor,  point- 
ing out  the  way. 


Fig.  55 

Dangerous  rocks  and  shoals  are  also 
marked  by  buoys;  and  many  of  these 
are  so  made  that  they  send  out  a  shrill 
whistle  or  ring  a  bell  every  time  they  are 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND  THE  OCEANS 


53 


>^ 


moved  by  the  waves.     On  this  account 
they  are  called  whistling  buoys  or  hell 


Fig.  56 
At  times  old  buoys  have  to  be  replaced  with  new  ones 

buoys  (Fig.  56) .    Have  you  ever  seen  any 
of  these  bobbing   about   on  the  water? 

It  is  so  important  that  no 
mistake  be  made  in  enter- 
4.  The  work  iug  a  harbor 
''  P"°^  that  men  called 

pilots  make  a  business  of 
guiding  or  piloting  ships 
into  harbors;  They  go  out 
in  small  boats,  often  out  of 
sight  of  land,  to  watch  for 
an  approaching  vessel. 
When  they  see  one,  they  sail 
toward  it  as  fast  as  they 
can.  In  stormy  weather  it 
is  exciting  to  see  a  pilot 
come  up  in  his  little  boat, 
tossed  about  by  the  huge 
waves,  and  clamber  up  the  side  of  the 
ship.  It  seems  a  wonder  that  he  is  not 
washed  into  the  sea,  and  that  his  small 


boat  is  not  dashed  to  pieces  against  the 

side  of  the  big  vessel. 

In  spite  of  all  the  care 
that  is  taken  to  guide  ships 
safely  into  har-   s.^heworkof 

bors,     one     is     We-savlng 
.        .  stations 

now  and  then 
wrecked  on  the  coast  (Fig. 
57),  especially  in  foggy  and 
stormy  weather.  Then,  of 
course,  the  lives  of  sailors 
and  passengers  are  in  dan- 
ger. Hence  it  is  important 
that  some  means  be 
provided  for  saving  ship- 
wrecked people.  This  is 
done  through  life-saving 
stations.  Here  and  there 
along  the  coast  such  sta- 
tions are  found,  where 
several  men  spend  their 
time  in  keeping  a  sharp  lookout  for  ship- 
wrecks, and  in  going  to  the  rescue.    At 


©  Brown  Bros. 


©  Brown  Bros. 


Fig.  57 

such  times  they  boldly  launch  their  life- 
boats through  the  surf  and  perform 
many  acts  of  bravery. 


54 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


1.  Name  the  continents  in  the  New 
World,  and  tell  their  shape.  2.  Name 
Review  ^^d  locate  the  oceans  in  the 

questions  ^ew  World.  3.  Name  and 
locate  the  continents  of  the  Old  World; 
the  oceans.  4.  What  can  you  tell  about 
the  depth  of  the  ocean?  5.  Explain  the 
value  of  the  ocean  for  transportation.  6. 
Mention  some  of  the  difficulties  and  dan- 
gers ocean  vessels  must  meet.  7.  What  is 
meant  by  a  harbor,  and  how  are  safe  har- 
bors obtained?  8.  How  are  ships  guided 
along  the  coast?  9.  What  are  buoys,  and 
how  are  they  of  value?  10.  Explain  the 
work  of  pilots.  11.  Of  life-saving  stations. 


1.  Compare  the  amount  of  land  in  the 
eastern  hemisphere  with  the  amount  in 
the  western  (Fig.  46).  2.  On  maps  of  the 
northern  and  southern  hemispheres  how 
would  the  amounts  of  land  compare?    3. 


Leaving  out  the  islands,  how  many  land 
bodies  can  you  find?  4.  Which  body  of 
land   extends  farthest  north? 

Suggestions 

5.  Which   farthest   south?    6.     for  extra 

work 

Which  grand  division  has 
the  most  regular  coast  line?  7.  Which 
the  most  irregular?  8.  Which  grand 
divisions  are  crossed  by  the  equator? 
9.  Name  the  grand  divisions  that  lie  in 
three  zones.  10.  Name  those  that  lie 
in  but  two.  11.  TeU  which  land  body  is 
not  inhabited  and  why.  12.  What  is  the 
largest  island  in  the  world?  13.  Where  is 
it?  14.  Name  and  locate  three  other  large 
islands.  15.  What  direction  is  North 
America  from  South  America?  16.  Lo- 
cate Cape  Horn;  Cape  of  Good  Hope; 
Cape  Guardafui.  17.  Locate  eight  seas 
on  the  eastern  hemisphere  and  two  on  the 
western.  18.  Which  of  these  seas  are  in- 
land bodies  of  water? 


PART  II.    NORTH    AMERICA 


I.    The  Countries  of  North  America 


If   you    look   at    the   map   of   North 

America  (Fig.  59),  you  will  see  that  the 

continent  is  divided  into  sev- 

The  principal  .  x      +U  + 

divisions  of      era!  countries.    In  the  center, 
North  extending  from  ocean  to  ocean, 

America 

is  the  United  States.  North 
of  our  country  is  Canada,  and  northwest 
of  that  is  Alaska.  South  of  us  lies  Mex- 
ico, and  southeast  of  that  is  Central 
America.  Make  a  simple  drawing  of 
North  America,  and  upon  it  mark  off 
each  of  these  sections. 

You  remember  that  Spain  was  the 
nation  that  helped  Columbus  to  make  his 
The  countries  discovcry  of  America.  After 
in  which  his  voyages,  many  Spaniards 

principal Tan-^  Came  over  and  settled  in  the 
guage,  and  the  southern  part  of  the  continent. 
They  occupied  the  parts  now 
called  Mexico  and  Central  America.  All 
this  section,  and  some  of  the  land  to  the 
north  of  it,  now  a  part,  of  the  United 
States,  was  for  many  years  owned  by 
Spain.  Indeed,  at  one  time  it  all  bore 
the  name  of  New  Spain;  but  the  govern- 
ment by  Spain  was  so  bad  that  the  people 
rebelled  against  it,  and,  by  war,  secured 
their  independence. 

Although  the  Spanish  language  is  still 
spoken  in  all  this  section,  it  is  now 
divided  into  several  independent  coun- 
tries. The  larger  part  of  it,  called 
Mexico,  is  now  under  one  government; 
Central  America  is  divided  into  several 


small  nations.  It  is  called  Central  Amer- 
ica because  of  its  position  between  two 
continents.  There  is  really  no  country  of 
that  name,  but  a  union  of  the  countries 
of  Central  America  is  being  planned. 

The  small  country  of  Panama  occu- 
pies the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
which  joins  Central  America  with  South 
America.  That  is  where  the  Panama 
Canal  is  located,  connecting  the  Atlan- 
tic and  Pacific  oceans  (p.  148). 

Other  nations  besides  Spain  sent  ex- 
plorers to  America  and  made  settlements. 
Chief  among  these  were  the  why  English 
English  and  French.    The  ^^  the  princi- 
English  settlers  at  first  made  in  our  country, 
their  homes  along  the    east-  and  why 

.     ^  French  is 

ern  coast,  as  in  Massachu-  spoken  in 
setts  and  Virginia.  The  some  places 
French  chose  the  basins  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  Mississippi  rivers.  Find  these 
rivers  on  Fig.  58.  As  the  result  of  war, 
the  English  obtained  control  of  the 
French  territory,  and  EngUsh  became  the 
principal  language  of  all  the  continent 
north  of  Mexico. 

Even  now,  however,  one  is  reminded 
of  the  old  French  rule.  French  is  still 
heard  in  New  Orleans,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  is  the  com- 
mon language  in  the  cities  of  Montreal 
and  Quebec,  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River. 
Point  out  these  cities  on  Fig.  61.  The 
names  of  many  places  in  the  Mississippi 


55 


110      Longitude        Wcsi        100       fro 


Fig.  58 


Fig.  59 


58 


NORTH   AMERICA 


and  St.  Lawrence  basins,  such  as  New 
Orleans,  St.  Louis,  and  Montreal,  are 
French.  They  were  given  when  these 
places  belonged  to  France. 

For  many  years  the  colonies  in  Amer- 
ica were  governed  by  England;  but  finally 
many  of  the  colonists  became 
United  States    dissatisfied  with  English  rule, 
came  to  be  a    As  a  result,  a  war  for  inde- 

separate  i  i       i  .  i  •   i 

country  pendence   broke    out,    which 

lasted  several  years.  The 
leader  of  the  colonies  in  this  war  was  Gen- 
eral George  Washington.  The  colonists 
declared  themselves  independent  on  July 
4,  1776,  a  date  whose  anniversary  you 
celebrate  every  year.  How  old,  then,  is 
our  country?  Independence  was  not 
gained,  however,  until  later,  after  several 
years  of  hard  fighting  and  much  suffering. 

Our  ancestors  who  fought  in  this  war 
formed  a  government  of  their  own  which 
they  called  the  United  States.  At  first 
there  were  only  thirteen  small  states  in 
the  Union,  all  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 
These  were  New  Hampshire,  Massachu- 
setts, Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Dela- 
ware, Maryland,  Virginia,  North  CaroHna. 
South  Carolina,  and  Georgia.  Find  each 
of  them  on  Fig.  63.  What  a  small  part 
of  the  United  States  they  now  form ! 

Gradually  other  states  and  territories 
were  added,  until  our  country  now  ex- 
tends across  the  continent,  as  you  see. 
It  even  includes  Alaska  (p.  143)  and 
important  groups  of  islands  in  the  Pacific 
and  Atlantic  oceans  (p.  147). 

Our  flag  still  has  its  thirteen  red  and 
white  stripes,  to  remind  us  of  these 
thirteen  original  states.  At  first  there 
were  only  thirteen  stars  in  the  blue  field 
of  the  flag.    But  a  star  has  been  added 


for  each  new  state,  until  now  there  are 
many  more.  Count  the  stars  in  the  flag 
to  see  how  many  states  there  are  now. 

England  was  able  to  keep  a  large  part 
of   the    continent,    which   is    called   the 
Dominion   of   Canada.    This    The  parts  of 
country,    which    is    still   a    *^.!,l'*'',!!'\!"* 

■^  ^  ,  still  held  by 

British  colony,  is  a  union  of    England 
states,    or    provinces,    like    our    United 
States. 

You  observe,  on  Fig.  59,  the  large 
island  of  Newfoundland,  off  the  extreme 
eastern  coast  of  the  continent.  This  also 
was  kept  by  England  and  is  still  a  British 
colony;  but  it  has  never  joined  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  and  has,  therefore, 
a  separate  government. 

Of  course,  where  two  countries  lie  side 
by  side,  as  do  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  there  must  be  some   How  the 
line    showino;    where    one    boundaries  of 

"  these  coun- 

country  ends  and  the   other    tries  are 
begins.    Such  a  line  is  called    ^^^^^ 
a    boundary.     The    boundary    lines    be- 
tween the  different  nations  are  shown  on 
Fig.  59  by  broken  lines.    Point  them  out. 

In  some  parts  you  will  see  that  a 
natural  boundary,  such  as  a  river  or  a 
mountain  range,  has  been  chosen  to  sepa 
rate  neighboring  countries.  In  other 
places  the  boundary  does  not  follow  any 
natural  line,  but  is  a  straight  line,  cutting 
across  rivers,  lakes,  and  mountains.  Ex- 
amine the  boundary  of  the  United  States 
to  see  how  much  of  it  is  natural. 

Fig.  59  is  a  map  of  North  America 
showing  the  boundaries  of  the  different 
countries,  and  the  location  of  ^he  purpose 
the  largest  rivers  and  cities,  of  political 
Such  a  map  is  called  a  ^^^^ 
political  map.  Trace  the  Mississippi  River. 
Locate  New  York;  San  Francisco ;  Chicago. 


PROFILE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  ALONGTHEPARALLEL  45°  N. 


tid-iXw^i:::::^ 


-D — " — T r — -^ ir 


_, ,. J T      '  tj".  ^' 


C»tl*OA 


Fig.  60 


Fig.  61 


i<lg.  «1 


"? 


UNITED  STATES 


RELIEF  MAP 

Scale  of  statute  milei 
y)  ago  ^jo 4^ 


II.O'  (RELLC,  N.  y. 


■  -i—  ,; 


Fig.  62 


/■^'  \ 


V   \ 


Olark  Plateau 


Mississippi 


J^         Cumberland       ABPOlaohlan  Highland 
Basin    / naLeau  ^_^^..^<,.^j'Ud„oni  Plat 


-V- 


teaa       Atlantic  Coastal  Plain    \. 


N.CAROUNA 


Fig.  62 


PROFILE  OF  U.  a.  ALONG 
THE  PARALLEL  36°  N. 


Atlantic  Oetmn 


Fig.  63 


^i^o^-m; 


'Jk. 


^     "u    -o  A,w, 


''< 


/4(gsfflcmt>fc-^v^        T> 

|#^ 

'y^^y^Zy/T 

in*ha    .    ,,_\« -^^^^^^C^ 

#    /*^ 

^>iS-f-JX^'f  J 

^-^~^^^ 

% 

4^'prk 

i 

^^^^'''^''.MV.uU^'.C-^^' 


-Jew 


a 


u  >  1/ 


A'  -. 


Little  Rod 

lI§SlS»l^"%J?ySllontSttl 

i)g.cka)L.'.n\  J^ 


^ 


A 


ville 


^^ 


GULF 


i^ 


o     r 


■^  W- 
^    /TV 


C.Canau^''''' 


U       12       -Y 


I      W 


O 


Nl      ^ 


c.Sfibl*; 


i 


Fig.  63 


66 


NORTH   AMERICA 


Fig.  58,  a  physical  map,  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  Fig.  59.  Its  purpose  is  to 
The  purpose  ^^^^  ^he  height  of  the  land, 
of  physical  or  the  high  and  low  parts  of  the 
™^^^  continent  by  means  of  colors. 

Compare  this  map  with  Fig.  60,  which 
will  help  you  to  understand  the  meaning 
of  the  different  colors.  Fig.  60  is  called  a 
relief  map.  It  shows  how  the  continent 
would  look  if  the  mountains  were  a  great 
deal  higher  than  they  really  are. 

What  great  mountain  system,  or  high- 
land, do  you  find  in  the  western  part  of 
North  America?  What  great  highland 
in  the  east?  In  what  direction  does  each 
of  these  highlands  extend?  Which  is  the 
broader?  Which  is  the  higher?  Trace, 
as  nearly  as  you  can,  the  boundaries 
of  each. 

Where  is  the  lowest  land  between  these 
two  highlands?  Show  the  length  and 
width  of  the  Mississippi  Basin.  Notice 
the  slope  east  of  the  Appalachian  High- 
land.    Is  it  longer  or  shorter  than  that 


Fig.  64.— New  York  City 


west  of  the  western  highlands?  What 
are  the  main  slopes  in  North  America? 
Upon  which  of  these  slopes  or  highlands 
do  you  live? 

If  you  look  at  Fig.  59  you  will  see  that 
its  scale  is  about  675  miles  to  the  inch. 

Knowing   this   fact,    find   how     The  extent  of 

many  miles  it  is  across  our  the  United 
country  from  north  to  south, 
measuring  from  our  northern  boundary 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Find 
the  width  of  our  country  in  an  east-west 
direction,  from  New  York  to  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  United  States  is  not  quite  so 
large  as  Canada.  How  does  it  compare 
with  Mexico  in  size? 

On  Fig.  61,  point  out  the  highlands  and 
slopes  that  are  shown  also  on  Fig.  58. 
Notice  that  this  map  is  on  a  larger  scale. 
Fig.  61  is  both  a  physical  and  a  political 
map,  for  it  shows  both  the  height  of  land 
and  the  boundaries  of  the  states.  What 
facts  about  our  country  are  shown  on 
Fig.  61  that  are  not  shown  on  Fig.  63? 
Note  how  Fig.  62,  a  relief  map  of  the 
United  States,  helps  you  to  understand 
what  the  colors  of  Fig.  61  mean.  Notice 
especially  by  comparing  Figs.  61  and  62 
that,  except  where  there  are  mountains, 
highlands  and  lowlands  shade  into  each 
other  gradually.  On  the  other  hand, 
what  other  facts  are  shown  by  Fig.  63 
but  not  by  Fig.  61? 

Physical  maps  do  not  show  countries 
or  states  or  cities.  Political  maps  do  not 
show  the  height  of  the  land.  Physical 
and  political  maps,  however,  show  both. 

In  studying  physical  maps,  or  physical 
and  political  maps,  you  should  pay  care- 
ful attention  to  the  key,  to  see  which 
colors  represent  lowlands  and  which 
represent  highlands. 


THE  COUNTRIES   OF   NORTH   AMERICA 


67 


1.  Name    the    principal    countries    of 
North    America.      Write    their    names. 

Review  2.    In  which  country  is    Span- 

questions  jgj^  ^^Q  principal  language? 
Why?  3.  Why  is  English  the  principal 
language  in  our  country?  Why  is  some 
French  still  spoken  in  North  America? 
4.  How  did  the  United  States  come  to  be 


formed?  What  parts  of  the  contuient  does 
it  include?  5.  What  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent are  still  held  by  England?  6.  How 
are  the  boundaries  of  these  countries 
formed?  7.  Explain  the  purpose  of  poHt- 
ical  maps.  8.  Of  physical  maps.  9.  Of 
relief  maps.  10.  State  some  facts  showing 
the  extent  of  the  United  States. 


II.     The  Northeastern  States 


Things  that 
would  interest 
a  stranger  in 
New  York 
City 

1.  The  number 
of  people 


In  Fig.  66  find  New  York  City.  Fig.  64 
represents  this  city  on  a  larger  scale.  Note 
how  much  land  it  includes,  and,  by  using 
the  scale  of  the  map,  estimate  the  length 
of  the  city  north  and  south. 

One  of  the  first  things  that  would  in- 
terest a  stranger  there  is  the  great  num- 
ber of  people.  If  he  enters 
the  city  from  the  north, 
he  soon  sees  long  streets 
thronged  with  them.  If  he 
travels  southward  through 
it,  he  finds  people  every- 
where, and  at  many  points 
the  crowds  are  as  dense  as  those  at  a 
county  fair.  Likewise,  if  he  crosses  the 
East  River  and  passes  through  the  part 
of  the  city  called  Brooklyn,  he  finds 
just  as  many  people  there.  By  thus 
traveling  about  in  all  directions,  he  be- 
gins to  understand  what  is  meant  by 
the  statement  that  New  York  has 
nearly  6,000,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
the  largest  city  in  the  world. 

The  great  buildings  are  among  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  Fig.  67  suggests 
2.  The  size  of     how  much  larger  many  of 

the  buildings         ^j^gj^     ^j.g     ^^^^     ^j^Qg^     .j^ 

small  towns.  Most  of  those  in  the  pic- 
ture are  office  buildings,  used  for  busi- 
ness.   The  tallest  one  is  the  Woolworth 


Building;  it  is  fifty-five  stories  high.  Fig. 
65  shows  the  number  and  the  size  of  the 
office  rooms  in  one  of  the  lower  floors. 
Such  a  floor  can  accommodate  about  200 
persons.  The  higher  floors  are  reached 
by  express  elevators  that  do  not  stop  be- 
low the  27th  floor.  All  together  several 
thousand  persons  occupy  this  building. 


Fig.  65.  — A  plan  of  one  of  the  fifty-five  floors  of  the 
Woolworth  Building 


andy  Hook 
%** ^''■'c:"*''TvL^"B  Branch 


•4*,  NEW  . 

">^  !'      ■    .'  Asbury  Park 


-^ 


^^^Pf  Atlantic  City 

W~ — 

Cape  May 


i 


NORTHEASTERN   STATES 

AND  SOUTHEASTERN  CANADA 

POLITICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  MAP 

Scale  of  statute  miles 
0  25  50  75  100  150 


National  capitals  @ 
Important  highwaya«„_„ 


®  State  capitals 
Railroads 


V 


Cities  with  over  600,000 

Cities  with  500,000  to  tiOO.OOO- 
Cities  with  100,000  to  500,000.. 
Other  cities 


!  New  York 

-Pittsburgh 

Newark 

Portland 


,.-,,..,  Canals 
HEIGHTS  IN  FEET 
Vir~"  Over  5000 

;  2000  to  5000 
'     ""   1000  to  2000 
%^^   500  to  1000 

Sea  level  to  500 


n'esl  73°  /Torn 


Fig.  66 


70 


NORTH   AMERICA 


Some  of  the  most  important  banks  in 
the  world  are  located  in  the  southern 
part  of  Manhattan  Island,  a  section  of 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  67.  One  such 
bank  employs  more  than  2,500  persons; 
and  there  are  others  that  employ  nearly 
as  many.  The  largest  stores  are  found  a 
little  farther  north  on  the  island,  and  are 
usually  from  ten  to  twenty  stories  high. 


only  a  part  of  one  floor,  called  an  apart- 
ment or  a  flat.  Other  families  may  live 
above  and  below,  as  well  as  on  each  side; 
they  are  separated  from  one  another 
only  by  walls  or  partitions.  There  is 
usually  little  or  no  space  between  such 
buildings,  and  in  the  more  crowded  sec- 
tions of  the  city  a  single  block  sometimes 
contains    as    many    as    4,000    persons. 


Fig.  67.  — Manhattan  Idand  from  New  York  harbor 


Photoyraphic  Art  Corporation 


One  of  them  employs  more  than  5,000 
persons;  and  many  employ  2,000  or  more. 
The  buildings  in  which  the  people  live 
are  not  usually  separate  houses;  for  a 
whole  house  for  one  family 
takes  up  too  much  room  and 
is  too  expensive.  Generally,  many  fami- 
lies live  in  a  single  building,  called  an 
apartment  house  or  a  tenement,  which  is 
so  arranged  that  each  family  occupies 


3.   The  kinds 
of  homes 


What    objections    do   you    see    to   such 
homes? 

To  escape  such  crowding,  tens  of 
thousands  of  persons  live  outside  the 
city,  ten  to  forty  miles  from 
their  places  of  business.  Even 
those  whose  homes  are  in  the  city  gener- 
ally live  a  long  way  from  their  places  of 
work.  Hundreds  of  thousands,  there- 
fore,   spend    from    one   to    three   hours 


4.  Modes  of 
travel 


I 


THE  NORTHEASTERN   STATES 


71 


traveling  every  day.  Many  ride  upon 
street  cars,  busses,  ferryboats,  and  steam 
railroads.  Some  use  the  elevated  rail- 
roads, built  in  the  street  two,  three,  or 
more  stories  above  the  ground,  and  sup- 
ported by  steel  columns.  Others  travel 
by  underground  railroads  called  subways, 
or  pass  through  tunnels  under  the  East 
River  to  Long  Island,  or  under  the 
Hudson  River  to  New  Jersey. 

At  about  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
the  thousands  of  business  places  begin  to 
pour  their  throngs  into  the  streets;  and 
for  the  next  hour  every  street  car,  train, 
bus,  and  ferry  is  jammed  with  people. 
In  the  subway  and  elevated  trains  it  is 
hard  to  get  even  standing  room.  Every 
morning  there  are  similar  crowds.  Thus 
day  after  day  the  people  'travel  to  and 
fro.  The  crowding  at  these  rush  hours 
in  New  York  City  probably  surpasses  any- 
thing of  the  kind  elsewhere  in  the  world. 

The  scenes  in  the  harbor 
are  as  interesting  as  those 

5.  Scenes  in  OU  land.  HUU- 
the  harbor  ^j.g^g     ^f      gj^'pg 

from  all  parts  of  the  world 
can  be  seen  there  at  any 
time.  Some  are  just  reach- 
ing the  city  after  weeks  of 
travel  from  China,  South 
America,  and  other  distant 
lands;  some  are  loading  or 
unloading  their  freight  and 
passengers  at  the  piers;  and 
others  are  just  leaving  on 
their  way  to  foreign  coun- 
tries. Powerful  tugboats 
are  towing  the  large  vessels 
to  and  from  the  docks,  and 
many  ferryboats  are  pass- 
ing back  and  forth. 


The  principal  business  section  of  the 
city  is  on  Manhattan  Island,  which  is  thir- 
teen and  one  half  miles  long  and  two  and 
one  quarter  miles  wide  at  its  widest  part. 
The  largest  buildings  are  in  its  southern 
portion,  and  one  gets  some  of  the  best 
views  of  the  city  by  saiUng  around  the 
island.  Fig.  67  is  a  picture  of  the 
southern  section  as  seen  from  the  water. 
Mention  some  of  the  things  of  interest 
that  you  see  in  it. 

How  do  so  many  people  make  a 
living?  They  do  many  different  things. 
For  example,  more  than  200 

,    .,  ,       How  so  many 

daily    newspapers    are    pub-  people  make  a 
Ushed  in  the  city  and  more  ^^°s 
than    1,000    weekly    papers,  i.  The  great 
Think  of  the  number  of  persons  ^^  **^ 
kept  busy  gathering  the  news, 
printing  it,  distributing  the  papers,  and 
attending  to  other  parts  of  such  a  busi- 
ness!   There  are  as  many  as  250  hotels. 


©  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  68.  —  A  few  of  the  ships  in  New  York  harbor 
The  small  boat  in  the  center  of  the  picture  is  a  lighter,  which  carries 
freight  to  and  from  the  ships  and  thus  saves  the  trouble  of  moving  the  large 
ships  to  many  docks. 


72 


NORTH   AMERICA 


some  of  which  have  over  2,000  rooms  and 
employ  as  many  as  2,000  persons.  There 
are  about  22,000  teachers  and  not  less 
than  1,000,000  young  people  going  to 
school  and  college.  Think  how  many 
grocery  stores,  drug  stores,  moving  pic- 
ture theaters,  and  restaurants  there  must 
be!  Most  of  the  kinds  of  work  that  are 
done  elsewhere  are  going  on  here  also. 
Can  you  name  a  dozen  kinds  that  have 
not  been  mentioned? 

While  there  are  so  many  occupations, 
there  are  two  that  are  especially  impor- 
2  Why  trans-  taut.  One  is  transportation, 
portation  is  one    xhe  streets  are  so  filled  with 

of  the  leading  .  .  „ 

occupations  trucks  lu  many  sections  oi 
a.  Importance  of  the  city  that  it  is  difficult  to 

transportation  ,-i  i.i.i_  t        j.t_ 

pass  through  them,  in  the 
harbor  you  may  see  whole  freight  trains 
containing  goods  being  towed  on  flat 
boats,  called  lighters.  On  the  docks 
many  thousands  of  men,  called  longshore- 
men, are  kept  busy  loading  and  unload- 
ing ships.  Trains  filled  with  freight  from 
all  parts  of  the  earth  are  coming  or  going 
at  all  hours.  More  than  1,300  carloads 
of  food  alone  are  brought  into  the  city 
every  day.  In  all,  probably  not  less  than 
200,000  men  and  women  are  employed  in 
the  city  in  the  transportation  of  goods 
and  passengers. 

One  reason  for  so  large  a  number  is  the 
excellent  location  of  New  York  on  the 
,   ,j    ,      -  Atlantic  coast.     The  Atlan- 

0.  Advantage  of       ^      ^ 

the  location  of  tic  is  the  busiest  ocean  in  the 
world;  for  in  Fig.  315  you  see 
that  to  the  east  of  it  is  Europe  with  its 
enormous  population  of  455  millions. 
Westward  from  New  York  our  own  coun- 
try stretches  out  for  3,000  miles,  with  its 
many  millions  of  people.  In  Fig.  63 
read  the  names  of  the  states  that  one 


would  cross  in  going  directly  west  from 
New  York  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Name 
some  of  the  cities  one  would  pass  through. 
Thus  New  York  hes  directly  between 
great  numbers  of  persons  who  trade  with 
one  another. 

The  excellent  harbor  is  another  reason 
for  the  importance  of  transportation  in 
New  York.  Many  coasts  are  c.  Excellence  of 
so  straight  that  there  are  no  ^^^^""^^^ 
good  natural  harbors;  but  it  is  not  so 
here.  The  Upper  Bay,  which  you  see  in 
Fig.  64,  is  six  miles  long  and  five  miles 
wide;  this  is  large  enough  to  shelter  hun- 
dreds of  vessels  at  a  time  from  storms. 
The  Lower  Bay  is  larger  still,  and  there 
are  many  other  places  within  New  York 
harbor  where  ocean  vessels  can  anchor 
safely.     Point' out  some  of  them. 

The  piers  and  docks  are  on  just  as 
grand  a  scale.  On  many  coasts  the 
waters  are  so  shallow  near  the  land  that 
ships  cannot  come  close  to  it;  they  must 
anchor  a  mile  or  more  out  at  sea,  where 
they  are  met  by  smaller  boats  that  come 
to  load  or  unload  them.  At  New  York, 
however,  the  largest  vessels,  which  sink 
thirty  or  more  feet  into  the  water,  can 
come  directly  to  the  piers  along  the 
shore,  where  they  are  met  by  trucks  and 
wagons.  Fig.  51  shows  many  ships  rest- 
ing at  the  piers  in  the  Hudson  River. 
The  piers  here  extend  along  the  shore  in 
an  almost  unbroken  line  for  several  miles, 
and  there  are  many  more  in  other  parts 
of  the  city. 

How  is  the  city  connected  with  the 
country  on  its  west?    Fig.  62  shows  many 
mountain  ridges  between  New     d.  Ease  of 
York  and   the  Mississippi     ':£,^'JUe 
Basin.    What  are  they  called?     ^««^ 
Across  what  states  do  they  extend?     In 


THE  NORTHEASTERN   STATES 


73 


the  early  days  they  were  Uke  walls  in 
stopping  the  westward  movement  of  set- 
tlers. Yet  there  was  one  easy  route  which 
soon  became  very  important;  that  was 
the  one  leading  up  the  Hudson  River 
to  Troy,  and  then  westward  between  the 
Catskills  and  the  Adirondacks.  Locate 
these  two  mountainous  regions.  Be- 
tween them  the  Mohawk  River  flows 
eastward  into  the  Hudson.  No  point 
along  this  route  is  more  than  500  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  it  crosses  no  moun- 
tains whatever.  It  is  so  nearly  level 
that  a  canal  covering  the  whole  distance 
from  Troy  to  Buffalo,  and  known  as  the 
Erie  Canal,  was  completed  as  early  as 
1825.  The  building  of  it  was  an  im- 
portant event  for  New  York  City,  for 
it  made  it  possible  for  freight  to  be 
carried  by  boat  up  the  Hudson  to  Troy; 
then  through  the  canal  to  Buffalo;  then 
to  any  point  on  the  Great  Lakes  as  far 
west  as  Duluth.  Trace  this  route  in 
Fig.  61  and  estimate  the  distance  from 
New  York  to  Duluth.  Since  it  was  much 
cheaper  to  haul  goods  by  water  than  in 
any  other  way,  the  city  gained  an  ad- 
vantage for  trade  with  the  West  that  no 
other  Atlantic  port  has  ever  had.  Later 
the  New  York  Central  Railroad  was 
built  along  the  same  route  to  Buffalo. 
Many  other  roads  now  run  from  New 
York  northwest,  west,  and  southwest; 
these  do  not  avoid  the  mountains  but 
cross  them  by  means  of  steep  grades  and 
tunnels. 

New  York  City  is,  therefore,  the  prin- 
cipal gateway  between  countries  across 
the  Atlantic  and  the  United  States. 
Nearly  half  of  all  goods  brought  into  the 
United  States  enter  at  this  gate ;  and  more 
than  a  third  of  all  that  we  send  abroad 


go  out  the  same  way.    In  fact.  New  York 
is  the  greatest  port  in  the  world. 

All  the  goods  that  come  or  go  must 
be  transferred  at  this  point  from  ocean 
vessels  to  smaller  boats  or  trains;  or  from 
all  these  to  warehouses  and  stores  in  the 
city  itself.  It  is  largely  because  this 
work  keeps  so  many  persons  busy  that 
transportation  is  one  of  the  chief  occu- 
pations in  the  city. 

The  other  occupation  that  is  especially 
prominent  is  manufacturing.  Any  place 
that  enjoys  great  advantages 
for  transportation  of  freight  is 
likely  to  be  an  important 
manufact^uring  center,  be- 
cause manufacturing  depends   so  much 


3.   Why  manu- 
facturing is 
especially  im- 
portant 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  69.  — A  lock  in  the  New  York  Barge  Canal 
This  canal  follows  in  general  the  route  of  the  old  Erie 
Canal,  which  was  completed  in  1825.     On  the  right  is  one 
of  the  small  locks  of  the  Erie  Canal.  Trace  the  route  of  the 
Barge  Canal  across  New  York  state  (Fig.  66). 


74 


NORTH   AMERICA 


upon  the  ease  with  which  the  materials 
that  are  to  be  made  over  into  manu- 
factured articles  can  be  collected  and 
finished  articles  can  be  shipped  away. 

The  amount  of  manufacturing  depends 
also  upon  the  supply  of  workmen.  .  New 
York  is  very  fortunate  in  this  respect. 
Most  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
people  who  come  from  other  countries 
to  the  United  States  each  year  enter  by 
way  of  New  York.  At  Ellis  Island,  in 
the  harbor,  the  new  arrivals,  called 
immigrants,  land  and  are  examined  by 
government  officers  to  see  whether  they 
shall  be  permitted  to  remain  in  this 
country.  Fig.  70  shows  a  group  of  such 
immigrants.  Many,  instead  of  proceed- 
ing farther,  remain  in  the  city;  in  fact, 
about  two  fifths  of  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  city  were  born  abroad.  These 
foreigners  have  helped  greatly  to  supply 
the  factories  with  workmen. 

New  York,  therefore,  manufactures 
thousands  of  different  kinds  of  articles, 
from  ink  for  newspapers  to  steam  engines 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc 

Fig.  70. — Polish  immigrants  at  Ellis  Island 


and  steel  ships.  The  value  of  its  manu- 
factures is  about  one  tenth  of  the  total 
value  of  those  of  the  United  States. 
Among  the  immigrants  in  the  factories 
are  a  great  number  who  specialize  in 
the  making  of  clothing.  Partly  for  this 
reason,  the  manufacture  of  ready-made 
clothing  is  the  largest  manufacturing 
industry.  Probably  not  less  than  200,000 
persons  are  engaged  in  it,  and  nearly 
one  half  of  all  the  ready-made  clothing 
for  both  men  and  women  in  the  United 
States  is  made  in  this  city. 

In  New  Jersey,  just  across  the  river 
from  New  York,  is  another  vast  popu- 
lation.  Newark  (Fig.  66)  con-   jj^^  ^.^^^ 
tains  more  than   400,000  in-   about  New 
habitants,    and    Jersey    City   othtrs^outh- 
over  300,000.     There  are  five   west  of  it 

ji_  •,  •  u       i.    xT_      I.      T_  compare  with 

other  cities  about  the  harbor  ^^  in  advan- 
in  New  Jersey  that  average  *fses  for 
more  than  50,000  each. 
Within  fifteen  miles  of  Manhattan  Island 
are  more  than  7,000,000  persons.  What 
portion  of  the  entire  population  of  the 
United  States  does  this 
number  make  (p.  311)?  All 
these  cities  use  the  same 
harbor  and  therefore  enjoy 
much  the  same  advantages 
for  transportation  as  New 
York;  in  fact,  they  are 
practically  a  part  of  that 
city.  Make  a  drawing  of 
New  York  harbor  showing 
all  the  large  cities  upon  it. 
Only  ninety  miles  south- 
west of  New  York  is  Phila- 
delphia (Fig.  66),  the  third 
city  in  size  in  the  United 
States.  With  its  neighboring 
cities  of  Camden,  Trenton, 


transportation 


THE  NORTHEASTERN   STATES 


75 


and  Wilmington,  it  contains  a  population 
of  more  than  2,000,000.  Locate  these 
places.  The  secret  of  their  growth  is 
seen  partly  in  the  fine  harbor  formed  by 


©  Evring  OdUoway 

Fig.  71. — Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia 
This  is  the  birthplace  of  our  country.    Can  you  tell  why? 

the  Delaware  River.  Trace  its  course 
from  the  Catskill  Mountains.  Do  you 
see  any  reason  why  it  is  not  likely  to 
equal  the  Hudson  River  in  importance 
for  the  transportation  of  goods? 

About  ninety  miles  southwest  from 
Philadelphia  is  Baltimore  (Fig.  66),  the 
eighth  city  in  size  in  our  country.  Its 
location  so  far  inland  brings  it  many 
miles  nearer  the  states  west  of  the  Appa- 
lachian Highland  than  Philadelphia  or 
New  York;  and  since  it  owes  its  impor- 


tance partly  to  trade  with  the  West,  this 
is  a  great  advantage. 

In  Fig.  150  you  can  see  that  many  of 
the  same  railroads  that  connect  New 
York  with  the  West  and  Southwest  pass 
through  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore;  but 
they  lack  the  water  connection  with  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  their  trains  going  west 
must  climb  2,000  feet  to  get  over  the 
mountains.  How  are  these  facts  serious 
disadvantages? 

215  miles  northeast  of  New  York  is 
Boston  (Fig.  66)     It  is  itself  the  seventh 
city  of  the  United  States  in   How  Boston 
size,  but  with  Cambridge  and 
other    cities   close  by  has  a 
population   of   more   than   a 
milUon.     Here  also,  the  fine 
harbor  partly  explains  so  large 
a  number  of  inhabitants.    For  a  long  time, 
high    hills    in    western     Massachusetts 


and  the  cities 
about  it  com- 
pare with 
New  York  in 
advantages 
for  transpor- 
tation 


©Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  72.— The  Old  North  Church,  Boston 


76 


NORTH  AMERICA 


blocked  their  trade  with  the  West,  just 
as  the  Alleghenies  (Fig.  66)  blocked  it 
for  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore.  Name 
the  highland  found  there  (Fig.  66). 
Railroads  were  finally  built  across  it,  and 


Courtesy  of  Keystone  Coal  and  Coke  Co. 

Fig.  73. — Mining  coal  by  modem  methods 
Notice  that  machinery  is  used  to  loosen  the  coal.  This 
miner  carries  his  light  with  him,  on  his  cap. 

Boston  is  now  connected  by  rail  with 
Albany.  Estimate  the  distance  to  Albany. 
Thus  Boston  gets  some  benefit  from  the 
Mohawk  route.    Can  you  show  how? 

Just  as  the  great  Atlantic  ports  are  the 

principal  gateways  between  Europe  and 

,  .        the  United  States,  two  other 

The  relation  .   .  ,  ^t        ^ 

of  Buffalo  and  cities  in  the  Northeastern 
S^^At^ntic***  States  are  gateways  between 
coast  cities  in  those  ports  and  portions  of  our 
^Uoodr*'"''  country  lying  farther  west. 
These  are  Buffalo  and  Pitts- 
burgh (Fig.  66),  which  are  also  among 
our  largest  cities  (p.  311). 

Buffalo  is  on  the  route  from  New  York 


City  westward  at  the  point  where  goods 
going  east  or  west  by  water  must  be 
transferred  from  one  kind  of  boat  to 
another.  It  is  the  point,  also,  at  which 
many  goods  are  transferred  from  rail  to 
boat,  or  from  boat  to  rail.  That  gives  its 
harbor  great  importance. 

In  Fig.  66  you  see  that  Pittsburgh  is 
located  in  western  Pennsylvania  at  the 
point  where  the  Allegheny  and  Mononga- 
hela  rivers  unite  to  form  the  Ohio  River. 
Since  the  Ohio  flows  into  the  Mississippi, 
this  location  connects  Pittsburgh  by 
water  with  all  parts  of  the  Mississippi 
Basin.  In  Fig.  61,  show  some  of  the  more 
distant  places  that  can  be  reached  from 
Pittsburgh  by  boat. 

These  two  cities  are  also  on  the  routes 
of  the  principal  railroads  running  from 
the  Atlantic  coast  to  Chicago,  St.  Louis, 
and  other  points  in  the  North  Central 
and  Western  states.  Therefore,  most  of 
the  freight  bound  from  the  Atlantic 
coast  to  these  western  sections,  or  from 
them  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  passes  through 
one  of  these  cities. 

While  the  many  cities  that  have  been 
named  differ  greatly  in  size,  and  while  all 
the  others  taken  together  have 
a  smaller  population  than  that 
around  New  York  harbor 
alone,  they  all  resemble  New 
York  in  two  very  important 
respects.  In  every  one  of  them  trans- 
portation of  goods  and  manufacturing 
are  the  leading  industries.  Indeed,  the 
Northeastern  States,  in  spite  of  their 
small  area,  are  the  principal  manufac- 
turing section  of  the  United  States; 
they  make  nearly  one  half  of  all  the 
manufactured  goods  that  our  country 
produces. 


Two  ways 
in  which  all 
these  cities 
resemble 
New  York 


THE  NORTHEASTERN   STATES 


77 


The  influence 
of  Pennsyl- 
vania coal 

1.    Signs  of  coal 
seen  by 
the  traveler 


Why  do  the  Northeastern  States  manu- 
facture so  much?     It  is  largely  because 

of  the  coal  in  Pennsylvania. 

Let  us  see  how  this  can  be 

true. 
The  traveler  in  that  state 

sees  many  signs  of  coal.     In 

numerous  cities  there  are 
great  numbers  of  coal  miners  in  the  streets 
at  certain  hours  of  the  day.  They  can  be 
recognized  by  the  coal  dust  upon  them, 
and  by  the  dinner  pails  that  they  carry. 
In  certain  sections  one  sees  by  the  road- 
side in  the  hills  and  mountains  openings 
that  are  tunnels  leading  to  coal  mines. 
Now  and  then  thin  layers  of  coal  show  in 
steep  hillsides  or  cliffs,  and  occasionally 
a  small  coal  mine  for  private  use  is  found 
on  a  farm  or  even  in  a  back  yard. 

Many  mine  openings  that  extend  di- 
rectly downward  into  the  earth  are  sur- 
rounded by  ugly  mounds  of  waste  coal  and 
rock,  called  culm,  that  have  been  thrown 
there  because  there  was  no  better  place 
for  them,  and  that  serve  as 
reminders  of  what  is  going 
on  underneath.  Many  cars 
filled  wdth  coal  are  included 
in  almost  every  freight 
train.  In  weight,  the  coal 
from  Pennsylvania  makes 
about  half  of  all  the  freight 
hauled  by  railroads  in  that 
state. 

Two  kinds   of   coal   are 
mined  extensively.     One  is 

anthracite,    or 

hard  coal,  which 

is  found  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  state 
about  Scranton  and  Wilkes- 
Barre.      These    are    called  Fig.  74. 


coal  cities  because  their  principal  interest 
is  in  coal.  About  90,000,000  tons  of 
anthracite  are  mined  in  eastern  Penn- 
sylvania each  year,  which  makes  that 
region  the  greatest  center  for  anthracite 
coal  in  the  world. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  state,  south 
of  Pittsburgh,  bituminous,  or  soft  coal,  is 
mined.  Nearly  twice  as  much  bitumi- 
nous as  anthracite  is  produced  each  year 
in  Pennsylvania,  or  160,000,000  tons.  All 
together,  not  less  than  300,000  men 
are  employed  underground  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  that  one  state  mines  about  as 
much  coal  as  all  our  other  coal-producing 
states  combined. 

Without  this  coal,  neither  transporta- 
tion nor  manufacturing  could  flourish  as 
they  do;  for  it  suppUes  the  3.  how  this  coai 
heat  that  produces  steam,  and  compares  with 

^  '  other  fuel  and 

steam  is  what  turns  the  wheels  water  power 

»  ,    ,  ,  .  ,    -  in  importance 

01  most  locomotives  and  fac- 
tories.     Oil    and    gas,   both  of  them 
obtained   from    underground,    take   the 


2.   Kinds  and 
quantity  of  coal 
mined 


©  Press  Illustrating  Service 

-Horseshoe  Falls,  a  portion  of  Niagara  Falls 


78 


NORTH   AMERICA 


place  of  coal  to  some  extent;  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  York  produce  a  good 
deal  of  each.  Water  power,  also,  can 
take  the  place  of  coal.  Niagara  Falls, 
for   example,  furnishes    power    for  cars 


Courtesy  of  National  Tube  Co, 

Fig.  75.  —  A  steel  mill  in  Pennsylvania 

and  factories  more  than  a  hundred 
miles  distant  from  the  falls  themselves. 
Yet  coal  is  the  principal  source  of  power 
for  running  machinery;  and  on  that  ac- 
count it  is  largely  the  Pennsylvania  coal 
that  leads  these  states  to  manufacture 
so  extensively. 

While  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Maryland,  and  Delaware  make 
almost  every  kind  of  manu- 
factured goods,  by  far  the 
most  prominent  manufacture 
is  that  of  heavy  articles  made 
,oi  iron  and  steel,  such,  for 
example,  as  steel  ships,  engines  of  all 
sorts,  rails,  stoves  and  furnaces,  eleva- 
tors, cars,  bridges,  automobiles,  heavy 
machinery,  steel  beams  for  large  build- 


The  differ- 
ences among 
the  states  in 
manufacture 
of  iron  and 
steel  goods 


ings,  and  heavy  cannon.  Most  of  the 
great  cities  in  these  states  are  distin- 
guished for  the  manufacture  ,  v-  ^    .. 

"  1.  Kinds  of  iron 

of  one  or  more  kinds  of  such  and  steei  manu- 

.  f actures  in 

heavy     articles,    Pittsburgh    Pennsylvania 
,  P         11      and  states  near 

most  of  all.  it,  with  the  ex- 
One  cause  for  pi^^^t^o^^ 
this  is  the  fact  that  a  great 
abundance  of  coal  is  near 
at  hand.  Another  is  that 
iron  ore,  from  which  iron 
and  steel  are  made,  can  be 
obtained  easily.  A  little  of 
it  is  mined  in  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania,  but 
most  of  it  comes  by  way 
of  the  Great  Lakes  from 
Minnesota.  This  is  a  long 
distance,  but  the  fact  that 
it  is  brought  most  of  the 
way  by  water  makes  the 
transportation  cheap. 

The  group  of  six  states 
to  the  east  of  New  York 
State,    called    New   England, 

.  '  i-iv  /     2.    The  kinds 

carries  on  a  very  dinerent  of  metai  goods 
kind  of  metal  manufacture. 
This  region  is  noted  for  its 
tools,  knives  and  forks,  fire- 
arms, locks,  screws,  needles  and  pins, 
clocks,  watches,  jewelry,  and  other  light 
articles  made  of  metal.  Perhaps  you 
see  one  reason  for  the  difference.  These 
states  produce  neither  iron  nor  coal,  and 
since  it  is  expensive  to  transport  both 
materials  so  far,  articles  are  manufac- 
tured that  require  very  small  quantities 
of  coal  or  metal. 

New  England  is  noted  for  other  manu- 
factures, also.  While  it  mines  no  coal, 
grows  no  cotton,  and  raises  few  sheep  or 
beef  cattle,  it  is  the  most  important  region 


made  in  New 
England,  and 
one  reason  for 
the  difference 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


79 


in  the  United  States  for  the  manufacture 
of  goods  made  of  cotton,  wool,  and  leather. 
The  other  states  in  this  group 
roln'TrTd  have  some  factories  for  the 
leather  goods   making   of   textiles,   or    cloth 

are  especially  ,  •     j      j       -r»   j. 

important  in  goods)    indeed,    Paterson    m 

New  England  New  Jersey  is  the  leading  cen- 

1.  Where  these  ^cr  for  sllk  manufacture  in  our 
manufactmes  countrv,  and  Philadelphia  is 

are  earned  on  '^  '  ^ 

noted  for  rugs  and  carpets; 
but  these  more  western  states  work  very 
little  with  textiles  compared  with  south- 
eastern New  England.  Most  of  the 
cities  in  the  latter  region  are  engaged 
in  the  cotton,  woolen,  or  leather  industry. 
They  produce  such  articles  as  thread, 
muslin,  calico,  cloth  for  men 's  and  wom- 
en's suits,  stockings,  underwear,  shoes, 
pocketbooks,  leather  bags,  and  harness. 
Many  of  them  are  engaged  in  two  of 
these  industries,  and  some  in  all  three. 
This  is  true  of  all  the  larger  cities  in 
southeastern  New  Hampshire,  eastern 
Massachusetts,  and  Rhode  Island.  Name 
and  locate  some  of  them  (Fig.  66). 

How  did  they  come  to  undertake  such 

manufacturing  when  they  lack  fuel  and 

even   the   raw  materials   for 

2.  How  these  e       i  o       mi 

industries  got  mauuiacture  .'^  ihe  answer  is 
Ne^nSand  ^^^^^  P^^ly  in  the  history  of 
the  people.  The  early  settlers 
of  New  England,  being  a  long  way  from 
Europe,  and  having  no  one  else  to  depend 
upon,  had  to  make  most  of  the  things  they 
used,  such,  for  example,  as  clothing  and 
shoes.  In  that  way  they  became  skilled 
workmen.  Later,  when  other  parts  of  the 
country  also  needed  such  articles,  they  be- 
gan to  build  factories,  making  use  of  their 
abundant  water  power  to  run  them.  Then 
new  immigrants  from  Europe  went  into 
these  factories,  rather  than  to  the  farms; 


thus  a  large  supply  of  skilled  labor  was 
obtained.  In  this  way  New  England  got 
an  early  start  in  these  kinds  of  manu- 
facturing. There  are,  to  be  sure,  many 
natural  disadvantages.  The  inhabitants 
must  depend  more  upon  coal  than  upon 
water  for  power,  since  the  rivers  are 
irregular  in  their  supply;  and  the  raw 
cotton  and  most  of  the  wool  and  leather 
must  be  brought  long  distances.  Yet 
they  have  been  able  to  hold  their  own. 
Their  one  great  advantage  is  their  large 
number  of  workmen  highly  skilled  in  the 
manufacture  of  such  products. 

On  what  river  is  Washington  located 
(Fig.  66)?    Perhaps  some  day  you  will 

visit  that  city.      What  would     Attractions  of 

you  expect  to  see  there?   It  is    ^^  "ty  of 

„     ,,  i.       ii.        i-  Washington 

one   01    the   most    attractive 

of  all  our  large  cities.      Since  it  is  the 


©  Brown  Bros, 

Fig.  76. — A  New  England  clock  factory 

capital  of  our  country  (p.  30)  and  there- 
fore interested  mainly  in  government, 
it  does  not  have  the  many  factories,  the 


«0 


NORTH  AMERICA 


©  Manujactuitrs   Aircraft  Assn 

Fig.  77.  — The  Capitol  at  Washington 


factory  workmen,  or  the  street  traffic 
that  other  large  cities  have.  Also,  the 
principal  buildings  are  not  places  of  busi- 
ness but  government  buildings.  The 
most  important  is  the  Capitol  (Fig.  77), 
in  which  our  Congress  meets.  Another  of 
special  interest  is  the  White  House  (Fig. 
31),  in  which  the  President  lives.  There 
are  dozens  of  others  also, 
because  the  work  of  carry- 
ing on  the  government  re- 
quires offices  for  a  great 
many  men  and  women. 

Most  large  cities  have 
followed  no  definite  plan 
as  they  have  grown;  but 
the  arrangement  of  the 
streets  and  buildings  in 
Washington  was  planned 
from  the  beginning.  Its 
site  furnishes  some  mag- 
nificent views  across  the 
Potomac  River;  its  streets 
are  especially  broad,  parks 
and  monuments   are   very 


far  more  common  than  in 
any  other  large  American 
city. 

While  more  people  in  the 
world  are  engaged  in  farm- 
ing than  in  any    ^.^,^,^^^ 

other   single   OC-      of  farming  in 

cupation,  farm-  *^^^"  ^*^*"^ 
ing  is  not  carried  on  in 
these  states  on  as  large  a 
scale  as  in  the  other  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  In 
fact,  only  one  person  in  four 
here  lives  in  the  country. 
There  is  plenty  of  rain 
for  agriculture,  and  the 
temperature  is  mild  enough,  but  much 
of  the  land  is  hilly  or  mountainous.  In 
Fig.  66  locate  the  principal  mountain 
groups  and  ridges.  In  what  directions 
do  the  highlands  extend?  What  are 
the  names  of  the  principal  ranges  in 
Pennsylvania?  In  New  York?  In  New 
England? 


©  Brawn  Bros. 


numerous,    and    trees    are 


Fig.  78.  —  An  apple  orchard  in  blossom  in  New  York  State 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


81 


Fig. 


Point  out  the  more  level 
sections.  Even  in  sections 
where  there  are  no  moun- 
tains, however,  some  of 
the  land  is  so  hilly  and 
rocky  that  it  cannot  be 
cultivated. 

In  spite  of  these  difficul- 
ties, farming  is  an  impor- 
The  principal  tant  industry  in 
kinds  of  some    parts    of 

amung  these     states. 

Fruit  is  extensively  culti- 
vated in  several  sections. 
For  example,  apples  (Fig. 
78),  peaches,  pears,  plums, 
and  grapes  are  grown  in 
western  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
and  in  southern  New  Jersey  and  Mary- 
land, where  the  climate  is  made  mild  by 
the  waters  near  by.  Tobacco,  also,  flour- 
ishes in  the  lower  Connecticut  Valley, 
in  Massachusetts,  and  in  Connecticut. 
But  there  are  two  kinds  of  farming  that 
are  especially  prominent.  One  of  these 
is  truck  farming. 

In  so  rough  a  country  farming  on  a 
large  scale  is  impossible;  the  land  is  cut 
up    into    small    fields,    with 
of  truck  farm-     patches  of  woodlaud  here  and 
"^  there.     Many  of  these  fields, 

however,  are  very  fertile,  and  the  most 
common  products  are  those  fruits  and 
vegetables  that  find  a  ready  market  in 
the  nearby  cities.  Some  of  these  are 
tomatoes,  potatoes,  lettuce,  onions,  beans, 
peas,  corn,  cabbages,  and  berries;  grow- 
ing such  food  is  called  truck  farming. 
Can  you  tell  how  the  farmer  raises  some 
of  these  things? 

Where  there  are  so  many  great  cities, 
an  immense  quantity  of  milk  is  wanted; 


'!&ii-i**,t*t^ti'.':  i^  ^yWS^     i  i 


-.-i^e-'iih: v\  ' «•>! i\a,t it^(^ 


©  Keystone  View  Co. ,  Inc. 

79. — A  dairy  farm  in  New  York  State 

for  everyone  uses  milk  in  some  form. 
Much  of  the  land  is  so  rocky  and 
rough  that  it  cannot  be  plowed,  and 
can  therefore  be  used  only  to  raise  grass 
for  cattle.  For  such  reasons,  dairying  is  a 
very  great  industry  in  these  states.  It 
occupies  much  more  of  the  land  than 
truck  farming. 

Anyone    who    travels    through    these 
states  finds  dairy  farms  on  every  hand. 
The   surest   sign   of   a  dairy     2.  Extent  of 
country  is  a  number  of  cattle     ^^^  farming 
grazing  on  a  hillside  or  drink-    a.  Meaning  of 

c  1  1  J     .1  o  dairy  farm 

mg  from  a  brook;  and  they 
afford  one  of  the  prettiest  sights  that  one 
gets  from  a  train.  Most  of  the  cattle 
look  well  kept  and  clean,  for  they  are 
regularly  washed  and  brushed.  Can  you 
tell  why  they  receive  so  much  care? 

Fig.  79  shows  some  of  the  buildings 
that  are  necessary.  Tell  what  you  see 
there.  These  buildings  are  very  neat 
indeed;  they  must  be  ventilated  and 
kept  almost  as  clean  as  a  house. 

Besides    grass    and    hay,   the   farmer 


82 


NORTH  AMERICA 


usually  grows  corn  and  some  turnips  or 
other  vegetables  for  his  herd.  There  is  so 
little  hot  weather  here  in  summer  that  it 
is  difficult  to  ripen  the  corn  as  fully  as 
it  ripens  in  states  farther  west.    Yet  the 


/  .^^ 


©  Press  Illustrating  Service 

Fig.  80.  —  Oyster  boats  at  the  wharf,  Baltimore 


green  stalks  make  excellent  feed  for  the 
cattle  when  cut  up  into  bits  and  stored 
in  the  round  building,  called  a  silo,  Uke 
the  one  shown  in  Fig.  79. 

Entire  trains  of  milk  are  a  common 
sight  at  village  railroad  stations  in 
6.  What  is  done  thcse  statcs.  This  milk  may 
with  the  milk      i^g  hauled   200   or  even  300 

miles  before  reaching  the  city  for  which 
it  is  intended.  There  it  is  deUvered  to 
the  houses,  the  milkmen  beginning  their 
rounds  as  early  as  two  or  three  o'clock 
in  the  morning.  Can  you  imagine  some 
of  the  suffering  that  would  follow  in  the 
cities  if  a  milk  train  were  wrecked,  or 
if  snowstorms  should  block  all  trains 
for  two  or  three  days  at  a  time?  In  hot 
weather,  what  prevents  the  milk  from 
souring  before  it  can  be  delivered? 


While  the  land  in  these  states  supplies 
only  a  small  part  of  the  food  needed,  the 
ocean  furnishes  a  very  large    , 

Importance  of 
amount  of  food,     bome  OI  the     sea  food  and 

most  common  kinds  are  cod,    t^e  methods 

,     ,.,      ,  ,        ofgettmgit 

halibut,    mack- 
erel,  herring,  bluefish,  oy- 
sters, clams,  lobsters,  and 
crabs. 

Fish  used  to  be  abundant 
close  to  shore;  but  so  many 
have  been  caught  there  that 
fishermen  now  have  to  go 
far  out  to  sea  to  catch  cod, 
hahbut,  and  mackerel.  The 
vessels  used  are  powerboats, 
driven  by  gasoline,  or  sail- 
ing vessels  called  schooners; 
hundreds  sail  from  Glou- 
cester in  Massachusetts 
every  year,  and  they  are 
often  gone  for  weeks  at  a 
time.  Can  you  imagine 
some  of  the  dangers  the  men  meet?  Also 
some  of  the  conversation  in  their  families 
during  a  heavy  storm  on  the  New  England 
coast? 

One  of  the  most  interesting  industries 
along  the  coast  is  the  production  of 
oysters.  They  are  found  all  along  this 
coast;  but  Cheaspeake  Bay  produces 
more  than  any  other  section  in  the  world. 
Baltimore  is  the  center  of  the  oyster  trade, 
just  as  Boston  is  one  of  the  chief  fish 
markets  of  the  world. 

About  one  half  of  the  oysters  obtained 
in  Chesapeake  Bay  come  from  oyster 
farms  that  are  cultivated  with  as  much 
care  as  farms  on  land,  although  in  a  very 
different  way.  It  seems  strange  to  speak 
of  cultivating  farms  that  are  entirely 
under  water;  but   there  are   thousands 


THE   NORTHEASTERN   STATES 


83 


of  such  farms  along  our  eastern  coast; 
and  many  of  the  words  used  in  connection 
with  their  cultivation  remind  one  very 
much  of  ordinary  farming.  The  young 
oysters  are  planted,  they  have  to  be 
fattened,  the  harvest  is  spoken  of  as  the 
crop,  and  they  are  sold  by  the  bushel. 
The  oyster  farmer  starts  out  to  work, 
however, .  in 'a  boat,  and  there  are  many 
other  differences  from  farming  on  land. 
Can  you  suggest  some  of  them? 

1.  How  would  you  make  clear  to  a 
stranger  what  a  vast  number  of  people 
Review  there  are  in  New  York  City? 

questions  2.  State  facts  showing  the 
size  of  some  of  the  buildings.  3.  Explain 
what  kind  of  homes  the  people  have. 
4.  What  are  some  of  the  difficulties  of 
travel?  5.  Describe  scenes  in  New  York 
harbor.  6.  Give  an  idea  of  the  variety 
of  work,  and  the  importance  of  each  kind. 

7.  Show  how  extensive  transportation 
is  in  the  streets  and  about  the  harbor. 

8.  Explain  the  advantage  of  the  location 
of  New  York.  9.  The  excellence  of  the 
harbor.  10.  The  ease  of  traffic  with 
the  country  on  the  west.  11.  Why  is 
manufacturing  especially  important?  12. 
Name  large  cities  west  and  southwest 
of  New  York,  and  compare  them  with 
that  city  in  advantages  for  transportation. 
13.  How  does  Boston  compare  with  New 
York  in  such  advantages?  .14.  Locate 
two  large  cities  in  the  interior  and  explain 
their  importance  for  transportation. 
15.  How  do  these  great  cities  all  re- 
semble New  York?  16.  What  signs  of 
coal  in  Pennsylvania  are  seen  by  the 
traveler?  17.  What  kinds  of  coal  are 
mined  there,  and  how  do  they  compare 
in  quantity?  18.  How  does  the  coal 
compare  with  other  fuel  and  water  power 


in  importance?  19.  State  the  principal 
kinds  of  iron  and  steel  goods  manufac- 
tured in  Pennsylvania  and  the  states  near 
it,  and  give  the  reason.  20.  How  are  the 
iron  and  steel  manufactures  of  New  Eng- 
land different  from  those  of  Pennsyl- 
vania? Why?  21.  Why  are  cotton, 
woolen,  and  leather  manufactures  es- 
pecially important  in  New  England? 
22.  Mention  some  of  the  attractions  of 
Washington.  23.  Explain  the  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  farming  in  the  Northeastern 
States.  Describe  the  surface  of  this  sec- 
tion. 24.  State  the  importance  of  truck 
farming.  25.  The  extent  of  the  dairy 
industry.  26.  Describe  a  dairy  farm  as 
fully  as  you  can.  27.  What  is  done 
with  the  milk?  28.  Show  the  impor- 
tance of  fishing  in  these  states. 

1.  Many  visitors  go  to  the  top  of  the 
Woolworth  Building.  Describe  some  of 
the  views  that  you  think  you  suggestions 
would  have  there.  2.  Make 
a  drawing  of  this  part  of  the 
Atlantic  coast,  showing  the  principal 
harbors  and  the  leading  cities  upon  them. 
3.  How  can  a  canal  be  kept  full  of  water 
where  the  land  is  not  level?  4.  Make  a 
drawing  of  the  Erie  Barge  Canal  and 
include  the  principal  cities  upon  it.  5. 
Visit  a  fish  market,  to  see  some  of  the 
kinds  of  fish  mentioned  in  the  text.  6. 
Make  a  list  of  the  names  on  the  map  that 
begin  with  New.  How  can  you  explain 
such  frequent  use  of  this  word?  7.  Write 
the  abbreviation  for  each  of  the  states  in 
this  group.  8.  Try  this  game:  With 
scissors  cut  out  pieces  of  paper — ^without 
looking  at  the  map — as  nearly  the  shape 
of  each  state  as  possible;  then  see  if  other 
persons  can  recognize  the  state  each 
time  intended. 


for  extra 
work 


84 


NORTH   AMERICA 


III.     The    North    Central    States 


©  Ewing  GaUovoay 


Fig.  81. — Great  Lakes  steamers  at  Cleveland 

Some  of  the  finest  steamers  in  the  world 
are  found  on  the  Great  Lakes  (Fig.  86). 
Aiakevoy-      '^^^^^  starting  point  for  the 


age  from  Buf- 
falo to  Duluth 
or  Chicago 


1.  What  one 
may  see  in 
Buffalo  harbor 


Lake  Erie. 


westward  voyage  is  Buffalo. 
Possibly  they  would  start  at 
Oswego  or  at  some  other  port 
on  Lake  Ontario,  if  that  lake 
were  not  so  much  lower  than 
But  the  waters  of  the  Niagara 
River  descend  327  feet  in  passing  from  one 
lake  to  the  other;  and  no  vessel  could 
possibly  pass  through  the  rapids  of  that 
short  river,  to  say  nothing  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  themselves. 

While  Fig.  86  shows  that  the  Welland 
Canal  connects  the  two  lakes,  its  locks 
are  too  small  for  large  vessels.  Buffalo, 
therefore,  marks  the  end  of  the  lake  voy- 
age toward  the  east,  and  goods  reaching 
that  city  by  water  from  the  North  Central 
and  the  Western  states  must  there  be 
transferred  from  lake  vessels  to  trains  or 
canal  boats  for  their  further  journey. 
On  the  other  hand,  many  goods  bound 


from  the  Northeastern 
States  for  sections  farther 
west  by  lake  steamers  are 
transferred  to  lake  vessels 
at  Buffalo.  Many  rail- 
roads (Fig.  150)  also  carry 
even  more  goods  and  people 
between  the  East  and  the 
Great  Lakes  region  than 
do  the  waterways. 

Thus  the  harbor  of  Buf- 
falo is  a  very  busy  place. 
Some  vessels  are  loading 
coal  from  Pennsylvania  and 
manufactured  goods  of 
many  sorts.  Others  are  un- 
loading iron  ore  for  the  great  iron  and 
steel  plants,  or  lumber  to  be  used  in  East- 
ern cities.  Still  others  are  standing  beside 
tall  grain  elevators,  where  hundreds  of 
small  buckets  attached  to  belts  lift  their 
wheat  or  corn  or  oats  or  rye  or  barley 
to  enormous  bins,  from  which  it  is  later 
dropped  into  railroad  cars  or  canal  boats. 
On  our  voyage  westward  we  shall  find 
where  these  products  have  come  from. 

The  voyage  to  Cleveland  takes  seven 
or  eight  hours.  There  again  many  boats 
are  seen;   and  many  more  are 

'        .  "^  2.  What  one 

unloading  iron  ore  than  at  may  see  at 
Buffalo.  The  blast  furnaces  at  *^*^ 
Youngstown,  Pittsburgh,  and  other  iron 
and  steel  centers  in  eastern  Ohio  and 
in  Pennsylvania  obtain  most  of  their  ore 
by  way  of  Cleveland  and  other  ports  near 
it.  A  half  dozen  electric  hoists  maybe 
working  at  one  time,  lifting  the  ore  out  so 
rapidly  that  an  enormous  boat  carrying 
from  10,000  to  12,000  tons  is  emptied  in 
from  ten  to  fifteen  hours  (Fig.  82). 


THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  STATES 


85 


Near  by  are  coal  docks  where  coal  from 
Pennsylvania  or  Ohio  or  West  Virginia 
is  being  loaded  into  boats  to  be  carried 
westward.  Many  kinds  of  machines  are 
used  for  handling  the  coal.  One  of  them 
unloads  a  whole  carload  in  about  a 
minute.  It  hfts  the  car  thirty  or  more 
feet  and  turns  it  over,  dumping  the  coal 
into  a  chute  which  leads  into  the  boat. 
What  reasons  do  you  see  for  so  much 
speed? 

During  some  portions  of  the  voyage 
we  may  lose  sight  of  land;  but  before 
,-.,,.       Detroit  is  reached  the  vessel 

3.  Facts  of  in- 

terestabout  eutcrs  the  Dctroit  River, 
which  is  only  a  half  mile  wide. 
This  is  one  of  the  busiest  streams  in  the 
world,  one  boat  on  the  average  passing 
along  here  every  few  minutes,  day  and 


lud  and  Underwood 


Fig.  82. — Unloading  iron  ore  at  Cleveland 

In  the  foreground  an  out-of-date  method  is  being  used. 
In  the  background  a  large  modern  unloading  machine  is 
emptying  a  large  lake  vessel.  The  extensive  use  of  such 
great  machines  for  handling  iron  ore  and  coal  is  one 
reason  why  the  United  States  is  the  leading  iron  and  steel 
producing  coimtry  in  the  world. 


'iirtesy  of  Packard  Automobile  Co. 


Fig.  83.  —Assembling  an  engine  at  a  Detroit 
automobile  factory 

In  this  well-lighted  room  the  engines  that  are  being 
assembled  are  moved  along  a  track  and  each  workman 
adds  the  part  for  which  he  is  responsible.  In  this  way 
all  the  engines  are  made  exactly  alike. 

night,  during  the  season  of  navigation 
from  May  to  November.  The  portion 
of  Canada  just  north  of  Lake  Erie  is 
densely  populated,  and  important  rail- 
ways between  Toronto  and  Chicago  cross 
the  river  at  Detroit. 

If  one  has  time  to  visit  the  lake  cities, 
one  can  see  what  becomes  of  the  iron  ore 
that  comes  down  the  lakes.  Cleveland, 
the  fifth  city  in  size  in  the  country, 
and  Youngstown,  Uke  Pittsburgh,  con- 
sume vast  quantities  of  iron  in  the  manu- 
facture of  machinery,  pipe,  automo- 
biles, and  a  great  variety  of  other  things. 
Detroit  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of 
automobiles  (Fig.  83).  Chiefly  because 
of  this  industry,  it  is  now  the  fourth 
largest  city  in  the  United  States. 


86 


NORTH  AMERICA 


On  the  voyage  north  you  have  Bay 
City  and  Saginaw,  at  the  head  of  Saginaw 
Bay,  on  your  left,  and  you 
finally  pass  Alpena.  Not 
many  years  ago  this  part  of 
Michigan  was  thickly  wooded, 
and  these  towns  were  noted  centers 
for  lumber.     The  numerous  rivers  that 


4.  How  the 
country  west  of 
Lake  Huron  has 
changed  in  re- 
cent years 


A.   The  lower  grate  is  here  swung:  aside,  and  tlie  boat  is  enterinsr  the  chamber, 


Water  Level  below  Lock 


The  lower  gate  is  here  closed  and  water  is  enterinsr  the  chamber  and  lifting: 
the  boat. 


Water  Level  above  Lock 


Sc5 


J^ 


-^_ 


?€^^?€3^s€:F£bGfc.6fe.w.6.e»i3i^€^;^3€:? 


C.  The  water  in  the  chamber  is  now  on  the  same  level  as  the  water  above  the 
lock.  The  upper  gate  has  been  swung  aside,  and  the  boat  can  move  out  of 
the  chamber. 

Fig.  84 

empty  into  Saginaw  Bay  brought  down 
logs  to  scores  of  sawmills  there;  if  you 
could  have  gone  there  at  that  time,  you 
might  have  witnessed  many  exciting 
scenes  in  the  woods  and  on  the  rivers. 
Can  you  describe  some  of  them? 

Lumber  was  shipped  from  this  region 
to  many  Eastern  cities;  and  many  in- 
dustries dependent  upon  lumber  sprang 
up  here.  For  example,  southwest  of 
Saginaw  is  Grand  Rapids,  which  became 
the  greatest  center  for  the  manufacture 
of  furniture  in  the  United  States,  and 
still    holds   that   rank.     Grand   Rapids 


furniture  is  sold  extensively  in  New 
York  as  well  as  Chicago,  and  even  in 
Europe  and  South  America.  The  indus- 
try was  started  when  hardwood  forests 
near  by  were  extensive  and  has  continued 
to  grow  because  of  this  early  start, 
although  now  a  large  part  of  the  lumber 
must  be  brought  from  other  regions. 

While  there  is  still  valu- 
able maple,  beech,  and  birch 
timber  in  Michigan,  the 
greatest  forests  have  been 
destroyed.  In  some  sec- 
tions dead  trees  and  stumps 
are  the  most  prominent 
objects.  The  houses,  made 
of  logs  or  of  rough  boards 
covered  with  tar  paper, 
stand  in  little  clearings 
surrounded  by  these  sad 
reminders  of  the  past. 
Here  are  the  beginnings  of 
farming;  potatoes  and 
other  vegetables,  some 
grain,  and  a  few  animals  are 
raised  on  each  farm.  In  such 
places  life  is  lonely;  schools 
are  far  apart ;  and  not  many 
of  us  would  like  such  surroundings.  Yet 
the  grandparents  of  many  of  our  boys  and 
girls  settled  in  just  such  a  region  when 
they  "went  West." 

Fig.  86  shows  that  Lake  Huron  is 
twenty- three  feet  lower  than  Lake  Su- 
perior. St.  Mary's  River, 
which  connects  the  two  lakes, 
is  very  shallow  in  places,  es- 
pecially at  St.  Mary's  Falls.  Canals  are 
the  only  means  by  which  our  large  steamer 
can  get  past  the  falls;  and  the  traffic 
is  so  great  that  there  are  now  four 
canals  on  the  American  side  and  one  on 


Water  Level  below  Lock 


5.  What  one 
may  see  at  the 
Soo  Canals 


THE  NORTH   CENTRAL  STATES 


87 


the  Canadian,  the  five  together  being 
known  as  the  Soo  Canals.  They  are  kept 
busy,  day  and  night,  from  early  spring  to 
late  fall. 

A  day  spent  in  watching  the  vessels  go 
through  the  canals  is  full  of  interest. 
One  soon  learns  how  the  locks  lift  the 
boats  on  their  way  "up  lake,"  or  lower 
them  on  their  way  "  down  lake"  (Fig.  84). 
The  ease  with  which  they  work  is  won- 
derful; the  turn  of  a  wheel  or  the  move- 
ment of  a  lever  controls  the  electricity 
by  which  the  gates  are  moved  and  the 
water  that  raises  or  lowers  the  vessels  is 
let  in  or  out. 

Perhaps  of  more  interest  are  the  boats 
themselves  and  the  freight  they  carry. 
The  ''down  lake"  boats  contain  mainly 
iron  ore,  grain,  lumber,  and  copper.  The 
''up  lake"  boats  are  loaded  with  coal, 
dry  goods,  groceries,  house  furnishings, 
clothing,  machinery,  automobiles,  and 
other  manufactured  articles.  Notice  that 
there  is  a  much  greater  variety  of  goods 
going  west  than  east.  Can 
you  see  the  reason  for  this? 

Now   we    can    begin    to 
discover  where  some  of  the 

6.  Locationof    thlngs    havc 
the  iron  and       come  from  that 

we   have   been 

passing  all  along 
the  route  from  Buffalo. 
Some  of  the  iron  ore  is 
shipped  from  Marquette, 
which  you  can  find  in  Fig. 
86.  Beyond  this  city  we 
come  to  a  peninsula  that  is 
noted  for  copper.  In  what 
state  is  this  peninsula,  and 
what  is  its  name  (Fig.  86)? 
A  waterway,  partly  natural 


and  partly  a  canal,  allows  our  steamer 
to  cross  it  instead  of  going  around;  and 
this  is  the  more  interesting  route,  for  at 
some  of  the  stopping  places  one  is  likely 
to  see  great  piles  of  copper  bars  upon  the 
piers  ready  for  shipment  eastward.  Can 
you  tell  some  of  the  uses  of  copper? 
What  towns  do  you  find  on  the  penin- 
sula (Fig.  86)?  They  are  noted  mining 
centers  for  copper. 

The  end  of  the  voyage  is  reached  at 
Duluth  or  Superior.  The  two  cities  are 
so  near  together  that  they 
might  well  be  one,  were  they 
not  in  separate  states.  Name 
the   states. 

Here  is  where  most  of  the  boats 
were  loaded  that  we  have  passed  day 
after  day  on  this  westward  trip.  There 
is  still  much  lumber  west  of  the  lake 
and  there  are  several  sawmills  in  these 
cities.  Still  farther  west  the  chief  product 
is  wheat ;  these  two  cities  are  the  nearest 
points  for  shipping  it  east  by  water.    The 


7.  What  a  visi- 
tor would  see 
in  and  about 
Duluth  and 
Superior 


copper  nunes 
south  of  Lake 
Superior 


Fig.  85. — An  open  pit  iron  mine  in  Minnesota 

The  railroad  tracks  that  you  see  are  moved  from  time  to  time  as  the 
sides  of  the  pit  are  cut  away. 


Fig.  86 


Fig.  86 


90 


NORTH   AMERICA 


elevators  should  be  visited,  for  they  are 
among  the  largest  in  the  world. 

The  thing  of  greatest  interest,  however, 
is  the  iron  ore.  Most  of  this  ore,  which  is 
so  important  for  the  manufactures  of  the 


Fig.  87.  — One  of  the  many  coal  docks  at  Duluth 
Coal  is  brought  by  lake  vessels  from  Lake  Erie  ports  to 
Duluth.  Here  it  is  unloaded  by  means  of  the  "clam 
shells"  shown  in  the  picture,  each  of  which  can  scoop  up 
five  tons  or  more  of  coal  at  a  load.  Railroads  carry  the 
coal  from  these  docks  to  the  various  parts  of  Minnesota 
and  the  Dakotas. 

Northeastern  and  North  Central  states, 
comes  from  about  Lake  Superior ;  and  the 
most  valuable  mines  of  all  are  northwest 
of  Duluth  near  Hibbing  and  Virginia. 
They  are  even  more  important  than  those 
near  Marquette. 

Much  of  the  ore  comes  from  open  pits 
where  enormous  scoops  lift  five  to  ten 
tons  at  a  time  into  cars  that  carry  it  to 
Duluth,  Superior,  or  Two  Harbors  for 
shipment  (Fig.  86).  The  trains  run  out 
on  high  trestles  and  drop  their  ore  into 
great  bins  or  pockets,  from  which  large 
pipes  or  chutes  let  it  fall  into  the  holds 
of  vessels.  How  extensive  would  be  the 
suffering  in  the  East  if  the  iron  mines 
about  Lake  Superior  stopped  producing 
ore?    What  city  w^ould  suffer  most? 


The  many  articles  brought  west  are 
unloaded  in  these  two  cities,  the  mosi 
important  being  coal.  No  coal  is  mined 
within  hundreds  of  miles  of  these  cities; 
yet,  as  the  winters  are  severe,  a  vast 
amount  is  needed.  The  coal  docks  are 
as  interesting  to  visit  as  the  ore  docks. 
Can  you  imagine  w^hat  becomes  of  the 
furniture,  clothing,  and  hundreds  of  other 
things  that  are  unloaded  here? 

The  distance  from  the  Soo  Canals  to 
Chicago  is  about  the  same  as  that  to 
Duluth,  but  the  things  that  g  The  voyage 
interest  one  on  the  way  are     southward 

"  from  the  Soo 

very  different.  If  we  travel  canaisto 
southward  near  the  east  shore  *^^° 
of  Lake  Michigan,  we  see  thousands  of 
houses  built  on  sand  hills  from  100  to 
400  feet  high,  called  sand  dunes.  These 
dunes  have  been  formed  by  the  winds 
blowing  sand  up  from  the  beach.  They 
make  cool  places  for  summer  homes. 

In  the  ports  along  the  east  shore  great 
quantities  of  fruit  are  found  any  day 
during  summer  and  fall;  there  are  ber- 
ries, peaches,  apples,  and  grapes,  the  kind 
varying  with  the  season.  One  is  likely 
to  see,  also,  some  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
furniture  which,  like  the  fruit,  is  on  its 
way  to  Chicago. 

Along  the  west  shore  there  are  few^ 
dunes  or  summer  resorts,  and  little  fruit 
is  grown.  The  direction  of  the  winds 
across  the  lake  is  the  chief  reason  for  this 
difference.  Can  you  explain  how  winds 
can  have  so  much  influence? 

When  we  have  come  as  far  as  Milwau- 
kee, we  see  large  boats  traveling  east  or 
west  across  the  lake  carrying  freight  cars. 
The  east-bound  cars  are  likely  to  be  filled 
with  corn,  oats,  flour,  and  farm  machin- 
ery, which  are  taken  across  the  lake  tor 


THE   NORTH   CENTRAL  STATES 


91 


their  further  trip  by  rail.  The  west- 
bound cars  are  likely  to  be  filled  with 
manufactured  goods  from  the  East.  What 
reasons  can  you  see  why  such  goods 
should  take  these  routes?  Why  are  they 
carried  across  the  lake  in  freight  cars 
rather  than  in  vessels  in  the  usual  way? 

Long  before  the  harbor  of  Chicago  is 
reached,  the  buildings  of  the  city  can  be 
seen.  The  city  extends  for  nearly  thirty 
miles  along  the  shore,  and  smaller  towns 
to  the  north  and  south  increase  the 
stretch  of  buildings  to  fifty  miles. 

We  have  seen  several  large  cities  on  this 
voyage.  What  are  their  names?  Locate 
Why  Chicago  ^ach.  Chicago  is  nearly  as 
is  the  largest  large  as  all  of  them  together; 
North  Central  and  as  we  approach  the  city 
states  y^Q  wonder  why  so  many  more 

people  have  collected  here 
than  in  any  of  the  other 
places. 

Each  of  these  cities  en- 
joys transportation  on  the 
1.  Advantages  Great  Lakes, 
?»;»S^«-  but  Chicago  has 
*«»"  great     advan- 

tages over  them  all.  Fig. 
61  shows  that  Lake  Mich- 
igan extends  far  south 
toward  the  heart  of  the 
United  States.  East  and 
northeast  of  the  southern 
end  of  the  lake  are  many 
states,  including  nearly  all 
of  New  England  and  New 
York,  a  part  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  much  of  Mich- 
igan. West  and  northwest 
of  the  lake  is  about  one 
fifth  of  the  entire  area  of 
the  United  States.     Name 


the  states  there.  Both  people  and  freight 
going  by  land  from  one  of  these  sections 
to  the  other  must  pass  around  the  head 
of  the  lake ;  and  as  these  two  parts  of  our 
country  contain  a  good  share  of  our  popu- 
lation and  wealth,  a  large  number  of  rail- 
roads must  follow  this  route.  Thus  you 
can  see  that  there  is  reason  for  a  large 
city  somewhere  in  this  neighborhood. 

The  Chicago  River,  a  little  to  the  north- 
west of  the  southern  tip  of  the  lake,  fixes 
the  exact  location,  because  its  mouth 
forms  a  small  but  good  harbor  (Fig.  88). 
That  is  where  Chicago  began,  and  it 
has  kept  growing  as  more  and  more  rail- 
roads have  reached  it.  There  are  now 
thirty-four  of  them;  and  their  total  mile- 
age is  one  half  that  of  all  the  railroads 
in  the  United  States.     Anyone  traveling 


©  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Fig.  88.  — Halsted  Street  Bridge,  Chicago 
Where  bridges  are  built  across  navigable  rivers,  some  arrangement  must 
be  made  for  the  passage  of  boats.    Some  bridges  have  spans  that  turn,  others 
are  lifted  up  at  one  end  and  are  called  jackknif e  bridges.  In  this  bridge  the 
center  span  is  lifted. 


92 


NORTH  AMERICA 


from  one  of  our  coasts  to  the  other  may 
go  by  way  of  St.  Louis  or  New  Orleans; 
but  he  is  more  Ukely  to  go  by  way  of 
Chicago.  Chicago  is,  indeed,  the  great- 
est railway  center  in  the  world;    trans- 


©  International  Film  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  89.  —  Michigan  Avenue,  Chicago 
Along  this  avenue  are  some  of  the  tallest  buildings  of 
Chicago,  though  the  busiest  streets  are  a  little  to  the  west. 
In  this  picture  you  are  looking  southward.  On  the  left  is 
Grant  Park.  Lake  Michigan  lies  beyond  it,  outside  the 
limits  of  the  picture. 

portation  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  great 
occupations  of  the  city. 

It  enjoys  another  peculiar  advantage 
for  transportation;  for  every  one  of  these 
roads  has  its  terminal  here.  Distances  in 
our  country  are  so  great  that  a  break  in 
transportation  seems  to  be  necessary 
somewhere,  and  since  Chicago  is  so  near 
the  center  of  the  densely  populated  part 
of  the  country,  the  break  takes  place  at 
this  point.  At  any  rate,  whether  one  is 
traveling  east  or  west  or  north  or  south 
by  way  of  Chicago,  one  changes  cars  in 


order  to  continue  one's  journey.  On  this 
account,  transportation  of  passengers, 
baggage,  and  freight  is  an  especially 
important  occupation  within  the  city. 

These  remarkable  advantages  for  trans- 
portation naturally  make  Chicago  a  large 
manufacturing  center.  But  2.  Advantages 
there   are   other   reasons   for     of  its  location 

for  iron  and 

manufacturing  here.  We  have  steei  manu- 
seen  that  there  are  valuable 
copper  mines  and  some  of  the  richest  iron 
mines  in  the  world  about  Lake  Superior; 
and  the  lakes  make  it  possible  to  trans- 
port these  products  at  small  cost  to 
Chicago  and  vicinity. 

Coal  is  the  next  thing  to  consider. 
There  are  extensive  beds  of  soft  coal  in 
this  region,  near  Chicago.  Some  coal 
reaches  Chicago  from  Pennsylvania  by 
water  and  rail,  but  most  of  it  comes  from 
the  mines  in  IlUnois. 

Although  an  enormous  amount  of  iron 
and  steel  is  made  about  Chicago,  little 
of  this  work  is  done  in  the  city  itself. 
Looking  southeast  from  the  harbor  on  a 
dark  night  one  can  see  a  great  glow  as  if 
a  volcano  were  in  eruption.  The  light 
is  caused  by  the  steel  mills  at  South 
Chicago  and  at  Gary  in  Indiana,  the 
latter  city  being  thirty  miles  away. 
Great  quantities  of  iron  and  steel  are 
used  in  manufactures  in  Chicago  itself; 
the  Pullman  passenger  and  sleeping  cars 
are  manufactured  there,  and  a  large 
share  of  the  agricultural  implements  of 
the  world,  as  well  as  many  other 
kinds  of  metal  objects. 

Another  reason  for  the  wonderful 
growth  of  Chicago  is  its  location  in  the 
midst  of  one  of  the  most  extensive  and 
fertile  farming  regions  in  the  world. 
Grain  is  the  leading  product.     The  city 


THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  STATES 


03 


3.  Advantages 
of  its  location 
for  manufactur- 
ing and  ship- 
ping farm  prod- 
ucts 


stands  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  Corn 
Belt,  which  extends  from  western  Ohio 
to  eastern  Nebraska  and  Kan- 
sas. The  principal  crop 
northwest  and  southwest  of 
this  belt  is  wheat;  other  grains 
extensively  cultivated  in  this 
section  are  oats  and  rye.  As  a  result, 
Chicago  is  the  greatest  grain  market  in 
the  world. 

Where  corn  flourishes,  cattle  and  hogs 
are  common;  for  corn  is  the  feed  that 
fattens  both.  For  this  reason,  Chicago  is 
the  greatest  stock  market  in  the  world; 
many  trainloads  of  cattle,  hogs,  and 
sheep  arrive  there  every  day.     Most  of 


The  great  rivers  in  these  states,  as  well 
as  the  Great  Lakes,  furnish  routes  for 
the  shipment  of  goods;  and  Howtheiead- 
they  have  an  important  ad-   ing  river  cities 

.  ii        1    1  i_         compare  in 

vantage  over  the  lakes,   be-    size  with 
cause  they  flow  through  the   those  on  the 

.        lakes 

heart  of  the  country,  while 
the  lakes  are  on  its  northern  edge.  On 
Fig.  86  trace  the  Mississippi  River  from 
its  source  to  southern  Illinois.  What 
states  does  it  border?  What  states  does 
the  Missouri  River  cross  or  border?  The 
Ohio  River? 

Many  important  cities  grew  up  on  these 
rivers  when  river  transportation  was 
more  important  than  it  is  now.     The  larg- 


iiiiiitlin 

llL- 

.         _      'IL 

.sl 

^_    1 

1   |i  \'\ 

1  1   Ul   L 

_-    ^.m 

,  ^,   . 

■mm 

mTnr- 

p 

JL. 

**®>B8l^!j 

^H 

^^  ^^^lifa,.- 

H 

t 

^^^^^^^^ 

©  Brown  Bros. 

Fig.  90.  —  Steel  mills  at  Gary 
In  which  buildings  is  the  steel  made?  Which  are  office  buildings?    In  which  buildings  do  you  think  the  workmen 
or  officials  live? 


the  animals  are  slaughtered  at  the  Union 
Stockyards;  for  this  city  is  likewise  the 
greatest  center  for  meat  packing  in  the 
world.  The  extent  of  this  industry  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  average  num- 
ber of  hogs  slaughtered  here  each  day 
during  the  last  twenty  years  is  about 
20,000. 


est  of  these  was  St.  Louis.  Its  location 
on  the  Mississippi  near  the  mouths  of  the 
Missouri  and  Ohio  rivers  connects  it  by 
water  with  points  hundreds  of  miles  dis- 
tant in  any  one  of  four  directions.  On  Fig. 
61  show  what  these  four  directions  are. 
In  spite  of  this  advantage,  St.  Louis  is 
less  than  one  third  as  large  as  Chicago. 


94 


NORTH   AMERICA 


Another  large  river  city  is  Cincinnati, 
in  the  southwestern  corner  of  Ohio  on  the 
Ohio  River;  yet  it  is  much  smaller  than 
Cleveland.  Other  large  river  cities  are 
Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  on  the  upper 


of  St.  Anthony  in  the  Mississippi  River 
take  the  place  of  coal  by  supplying  these 
cities  with  a  large  amount  of  power  for 
manufacturing. 

The  chief  disadvantage  of  the  river 


©  Brown  Bros. 


Fig.  91. — ^ Upper  dam,  Falls  of  St.  Anthony 

Where  streams  are  dammed  to  produce  power,  it  is  not  the  water  that  flows  over  the  dam  that  is  used,  but  water 
that  flows  swiftly  through  pipes  from  a  higher  level  to  a  lower  at  one  side  of  the  dam.  This  falling  water  is  used  to 
turn  wheels  that  make,  or  generate,  electricity. 


Mississippi  in  Minnesota;  yet  these  two 
cities  together  are  smaller  than  Detroit. 
Another  river  city  is  Kansas  City,  in 
Missouri  on  the  Missouri  River;  yet  it  is 
much  smaller  than  Milwaukee.  Locate 
all  these  cities  on  Fig.  86.  The  fact 
that  the  lake  cities  are  so  much  larger 
than  those  on  the  rivers  suggests  that 
the  latter  are  at  a  disadvantage  in  some 
way.    Let  us  see  what  this  is. 

All  these  cities  are  benefited  greatly  by 
the  surrounding  farmlands.  The  two 
The  chief  dis-  g^oups  cujoy  nearly  equal  ad- 
advantage  of    vantages  also  for  coal.    Min- 

the  river  cities  , .  i      oj_       -r>      i 

neapolis    and    bt.    raul    are 
farthest  from  coal  mines;    but  the  Falls 


cities  is  the  fact  that  they  are  not  well 
situated  for  iron  and  steel  manufacture. 
The  great  supply  of  iron  ore  to  the  lake 
cities,  at  a  low  cost  for  transportation, 
has  led  to  enormous  manufactures  of 
metal  goods.  It  is  much  more  expensive 
to  haul  the  ore  from  the  mines  to  the 
river  cities  by  train,  or  by  train  and  river, 
and  on  that  account  iron  and  steel  manu- 
factures are  much  less  developed  there. 
This  is  probably  the  leading  reason 
why  the  river  cities  are  smaller  than  the 
others.  The  only  large  river  city  noted 
for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel 
goods  in  the  North  Central  States  is 
Cincinnati. 


THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  STATES 


95 


In  the  Northeastern  States  the  farms 
produce  fewer  raw  materials  for  manu- 
facture;   and  the  foods  that 

The  great  de-  ,  ,  „ 

pendente  of      they   supply,    such   as   milk, 
these  cities  on   butter,  vegetables,  and  fruits, 

the  farms  7        <=>  r  j 

meet  only  a  small  part  of  the 
needs  of  the  dense  population.  In  the 
North  Central  States,  however,  the  farms 
not  only  produce  far  more  food  than  is 
needed  in  those  states,  but  they  supply 
vast  quantities  of  raw  materials  for  manu- 
facture. This  is  an  important  difference 
between  the  two  groups  of  states. 

Minneapolis,  being  near  one  of  the 
greatest  wheat  sections  in  the  world,  has 
become  a  great  wheat  market  and  flour 
center.  It  has  fifty  enormous  elevators 
for  grain,  and  its  flour  mills  can  produce 
75,000  barrels  of  flour  each  day.  St.  Paul, 
beside  being  a  center  for  distributing  dry 
goods,  hardware,  shoes,  and  other  articles 
among  the  farming  sections,  has  extensive 
stockyards  and  packing  houses.  Min- 
neapoUs  as  a  grain  market  reminds  one 
of  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  Cleveland; 
while  St.  Paul,  in  the  importance  of  its 
stockyards  and  meat  pack- 
ing, reminds  one  of  Chicago, 
Kansas  City,  Omaha,  and 
Cincinnati.  All  these  cities, 
and  the  smaller  ones  as  well, 
are  much  more  dependent 
on  the  surrounding  farm- 
lands than  the  cities  and 
towns  farther  east. 

St.  Louis,  being  so  far 
south,  differs  greatly  from 
the  cities  farther  north.  It 
is  an  important  center  for 
the  manufacture  of  tobacco. 
Since  great  numbers  of 
horses  are  used  in  the  states 


north  of  it,  and  great  numbers  of  mules  in 
those  to  the  south,  it  is  an  important  mar- 
ket for  both  horses  and  mules.  Wool  and 
hides  from  the  sheep  and  cattle  ranches 
of  the  West  reach  the  city  in  large  quan- 
tities, making  it  an  important  center  for 
wool  and  for  the  manufacture  of  shoes. 
It  is  also  a  great  center  for  meat  packing. 

The  importance  of  the  farms  for  the 
growth  of  the  cities  is  perhaps  best  shown 
in  the  cases  of  Indianapolis,  in  Indiana; 
Columbus,  in  Ohio;  and  Des  Moines,  in 
Iowa.  Locate  these  cities.  No  one  of 
them  has  the  advantage  of  water  trans- 
portation on  a  large  lake  or  river;  their 
growth  has  largely  depended  on  the  sur- 
•  rounding  land  and  transportation  by  rail- 
roads; yet  they  have  thrived  wonderfully, 
and  two  of  them  are  the  largest  cities  in 
their  states.    Which  are  they  (p.  311)? 

The  surface  of  the  North  Central  States 
is  very  different  in  appearance 
from  that  of  the  Northeast- 
ern States.  In  traveUng  from 
Boston  to  Pittsburgh  one  is 
struck  by  the  number  of  hills  and  moun- 


Difference  m 
appearance  of 
this  region 
from  that  to 
the  northeast 


•tcr  Co. 


Fig.  92.  —A  farm  home  in  the  North  Central  States 
Homes  like  this  one  are  common  in  these  states.    Many  bams  and  sheds 
are  necessary  to  store  the  feed  for  the  live  stock  during  the  long  winters. 
The  tower-like  building  is  a  silo  where  green  fodder  is  stored. 


96 


NORTH   AMERICA 


■^^ 


tains,  by  the  winding  roads,  beautiful 
valleys,  and  extensive  forests,  and  by  the 
1.  The  differ-  Quantity  of  land  that  is  not 
ence  in  the  sur-   cultivated.    lu  New  York  and 

face 

New  Jersey,  to  be  sure,  there 
are  many  fertile  farms.  But  in  New 
England  many  of  the  farms  are  so  strewn 


Fig.  93.  —  A  wheat  field  in  Kansas 
The  only  trees  are  along  the  banks  of  streams. 

with  bowlders  that  ploughing  is  next 
to  impossible;  and  often  where  the 
surface  is  cleared  of  rock,  the  soil  is  too 
shallow  for  successful  farming.  In  Penn- 
sylvania there  is  more  good  farmland; 
but  in  traveling  by  rail  from  Philadelphia 
to  Pittsburgh  one  sees  many  high  hills, 
passes  through  one  deep  cut  and  tunnel 
after  another,  goes  around  a  great  horse- 
shoe curve  to  reach  the  top  of  the  Alle- 
gheny Plateau,  and  then  follows  deeply 
carved  river  valleys. 

As  one  proceeds  westward  from  Pitts- 
burgh the  scene*  changes.  Within  the 
first  hundred  miles  the  high  hills  nearly 
disappear;  and  beyond  central  Ohio  one 
rarely  sees  a  hill.  For  hundreds  of  miles 
the  land  is  nearly  as  level  as  a  floor.  There 
are  many  patches  of  timber  in  Ohio  and 
Indiana;  then,  in  Illinois  and  Iowa,  come 
the  prairies,  and  beyond  them  the  Great 


Why? 


Plains.     In  both  the  prairie  and  Great 
Plains  regions  there  are  few  trees  except 
along  streams.     It  is  quite  possible  that 
there   are   some  children  on   the   Great 
Plains  old  enough  to  be  going  to  school 
who  have  never  seen  a  patch  of  woods. 
West  of  Indiana  no  bowlders  are  likely 
to  be  seen  in  the  fields,  and 
on   many  farms  a  careful 
search  would  not  discover 
pebbles  large  enough  for  a 
sling-shot.   The  soil  in  most 
places  is  so  deep  that  bed 
rock  is  not  struck  even  in 
digging  deep  wells;  and  it  is 
also  very  fertile.     No  won- 
der that  many  men  aban- 
doned their  farms  in  New 
England,  in  order  to  farm 
in  these  states! 

The  crops,  also,  are  very 
different  in  appearance  from  those  in  the 
Northeast.    The  best  time  to 

,1  .  1  ,  1    2.   The  differ- 

see  tnem  is,  perhaps,  toward  ence  in  the  ap- 
the  end  of  June,  when  they  f^^'"**^ 
have  not  yet  matured.     Be- 
ginning in  western  Ohio,  corn  is  especially 
common;  and  it  is  just  as  common  all 
the  way  to  eastern  Nebraska,  occupying 
nearly  one  half  of  all  the  land  in  this  belt. 
Because  there  is  so  much  of  it,  this  region 
is  called  the  Corn  Belt  (Fig.  147). 

The  wheat  section  is  a  little  farther 
west,  including  North  and  South  Dakota, 
Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas  (Fig. 
148).  This  is  the  leading  wheat  area  in 
the  United  States,  and  many  of  the 
farmers  raise  little  else.  Wheat  is  so 
important  that,  if  it  were  to  fail  for  one 
year,  not  only  the  inhabitants  of  the 
United  States  but  those  of  Europe  as 
well  might  suffer  seriously  for  bread. 


THE  NORTH   CENTRAL  STATES 


97 


"Where  the 
rain  comes 
from  and  how 
it  is  distrib- 
uted 


Roads  are  usually  straight  in  these 
states,  because  they  do  not  have  to  wind 
between  hills;  and  there  is  little  waste 
land.  To  many  persons  much  of  this 
country  seems  flat  and  tiresome  and  they 
do  not  care  to  go  touring  here  because 
''there  is  nothing  to  see."  But  to  others 
the  black,  fertile  soil,  the  broad  green 
pastures  with  their  grazing  cattle,  sheep, 
and  horses,  and  the  fields  of  waving  grain 
are  wonderfully  attractive.  They  enjoy 
these  sights  Jiot  only  on  account  of  their 
beauty,  but  because  of  the  prosperity 
they  suggest. 

The  area  of  these  states  is  much  larger 
than  that  of  the  Northeastern  group, 
since  they  extend  about  1,200 
miles  east  and  west,  and  800 
miles  north  and  south.  The 
rain  for  this  whole  region 
comes  almost  entirely  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  shows  how  im- 
portant the  winds  are,  since  they  carry 
all  this  water. 

Fig.  146  shows  the  section 
that  has  the  heaviest  rain- 
fall. What  states  are  in- 
cluded in  it,  and  how  many 
inches  fall  there  each  year? 
Note  how  the  fall  decreases 
toward  the  north  and  west. 
Point  out  the  sections  that 
have  less  than  twenty 
inches  per  year.  That  is 
too  Uttle  for  ordinary  farm- 
ing. Do  you  know  what 
use  is  made  of  the  land  in 
such  areas? 

There  is  a  greater  variety 
of  farms  in  these  states 
than  in  the  Northeastern 
group.     The  newly  cleared 


lands  near  Lake  Superior  that  are  still 
covered  with  tree  stumps,  are  one  kind 
(p.  86).  On  the  western  bor-  The  variety  of 
der,  where  the  rainfall  is  less   farms  in  these 

,1  ...      1  .       states 

than  twenty  inches,  grass  is 
the  principal  crop,  because  there  is  too 
little  rain  for  other  products.  Here  the 
farms,  or  ranches  as  they  are  usually 
called,  often  contain  many  hundreds  of 
acres,  because  the  grass  is  not  heavy  in  so 
dry  a  climate,  and  a  large  area  is  required 
to  feed  a  herd  of  cattle  or  sheep. 

The  farmhouses,  therefore,  are  widely 
scattered,  often  being  located  near 
springs  or  along  streams,  where  water 
can  easily  be  obtained.  Life  is  lonely  in 
such  places,  and  some  of  the  most  com- 
mon comforts  are  little  known.  Yet  it  is 
a  very  important  work  that  these  people 
are  doing,  for  they  help  to  supply  our 
tables  with  meat,  besides  producing  hides 
for  leather,  and  wool  for  clothing. 

In  a  region  where  there  are  so  many 


©  International  Harvester  Co. 

Fig.  94. — Harvesting  on  a  large  farm 

Truck  farming  does  not  require  much  machinery.  On  the  larger  farms, 
however,  where  many  acres  are  devoted  to  a  single  crop,  farm  machinery  is 
very  important.  The  machine  on  the  right  is  cutting  the  green  fodder.  That 
in  the  center  is  raking  it  into  a  long  windrow.  The  machine  on  the  left  is 
loading  it  on  to  a  wagon. 


98 


NORTH   AMERICA 


large  cities  as  in  the  southeastern  portion 
of  these  states,  truck  farming  can  be  ex- 
pected, as  in  the  Northeastern  States. 
Dairying  also  flourishes  in  many  places, 
but  particularly  in  southern  Wisconsin 
and  northern  Illinois.  Can  you  see  any 
reason  for  its  importance  here? 

The  most  common  kind  of  farm,  how- 
ever, is  that  on  which  several  kinds  of 
grain  and  vegetables  are  raised,  as  well 
as  live  stock  and  possibly  fruit,  and 
where  the  farmer  does  not  depend  mainly 
upon  any  one  product  for  his  income. 
This  is  sometimes  called  mixed  farming. 

A  certain  farm  in  central  Ohio  contains 
160  acres,  which  is  considerably  larger 
How  mixed  ^^an  the  average  in  that  state, 
farming  is  Upon  it  is  a  farmhouse,  with  a 
ried^on  ^""  bam  near  by  for  horses,  cows, 
and  hay.     There  is  another 

1.  Appearance  ^ 

of  a  certain        bam  closc  to  it  for  feeding 

farm  in  Ohio  ,       ■,  am         i  i      i      i 

stock.  A  silo  stands  between 
the  two  barns ;  and  there  are  some  sheds 
between  the  house  and  the  barns  for 
storing  grain  and  farm  implements. 

A  windmill  behind  the  house  pumps 
cold  water  to  the  milk  shed  and  also  fills 
the  water-troughs  in  the  barnyard.  On 
one  side  of  the  house  is  an  orchard  of 
apple,  peach,  and  pear  trees,  with  a  few 
rows  of  berry  bushes  in  one  corner;  and 
there  is  a  chicken  house  in  another  part, 
in  which  enough  chickens  are  raised  to 
supply  some  meat  and  all  the  eggs  that 
are  needed  by  the  family,  with  some  to  sell. 

On  the  side  of  the  house  next  to  the  or- 
chard are  a  few  beehives,  and  back  of  the 
milk  house,  between  the  orchard  and  the 
bams,  is  a  good-sized  garden.  Beyond 
that  are  several  pig  pens,  in  which  pigs 
are  fattened  for  home  use  and  for  the 
market. 


Farther  away  from  the  house  are  fields 
in  which  there  are  at  least  three  or  four 
different  kinds  of  crops.  Every  farmer  in 
that  vicinity  expects  to  raise  corn,  per- 
haps sixty  acres  of  it  on  a  farm  of  this 
size;  some  grass  for  grazing  and  for  hay; 
and  wheat  or  oats.  The  part  of  the  farm 
farthest  from  the  house  is  a  wood  lot 
which  contains  beech,  oak,  and  maple 
trees,  and  from  which  firewood  is  obtained. 

The   busiest   time   for   work   is   from 
spring  until  fall.    As  soon  as  the  frost  is 
out  of  the  ground  the  farmer   2.  The  work  of 
and  one  or  two  men  who  help   ^^^  g^own  peo- 

,.,.,.  ,  pie  on  this  farm 

mm  begin  plowing  the  ground. 
Then  comes  the  planting,  and  later  the 
tending  of  the  crops,  to  kill  the  weeds 
and  keep  the  soil  in  good  condition. 
Finally  the  harvesting  follows,  from  July 
to  late  fall,  the  corn  being  one  of  the 
last  crops  to  be  gathered.  There  are  three 
or  four  cows,  which  must  be  milked  night 
and  morning  and  which  supply  the  family 
with  fresh  milk  and  cream.  Now  and 
then  the  garden  must  receive  attention, 
the  apples  must  be  gathered,  the  harness 
must  be  mended,  and  many  other  little 
things  must  be  done. 

Meanwhile  the  women  do  the  house 
work,  separate  the  cream  from  the  milk 
with  a  machine  called  a  separator,  look 
after  the  chickens,  pick  berries  and  can 
fruit,  and  work  in  the  vegetable  and  the 
flower  gardens. 

While  the  winter  is  the  easiest  season 
for  the  farmer,  there  are  still  many  regu- 
lar duties.  The  cows  must  still  be  attend- 
ed to,  the  horses  fed,  and  other  live  stock 
cared  for.  On  this  farm  most  of  the 
crops  are  fed  to  cattle  during  the  winter, 
because  it  pays  better  to  fatten  stock 
with  the  corn  than  to  sell  it. 


THE  NORTH   CENTRAL  STATES 


99 


Life  on  this  farm  is  much  more  pleas- 
ant than  it  formerly  was;  it  used  to  be 
very  lonesome,  because  there  were  only 
a  few  houses  in  sight  and  it  was  two  miles 
to  town;  and  the  work  for  both  the  men 
and  w^omen  was  harder.  But  recent  years 
have  brought  many  improvements.  The 
mail  is  now  delivered  every  day ;  there  is 
a  telephone  in  the  house;  and  an  auto- 
mobile makes  it  much  easier  to  visit 
neighbors  or  distant  friends  and  to  go 
to  town. 

There  is  a  bathroom  in  the  house,  run- 
ning water  being  provided  by  a  pump  run 
by  electricity.  Electric  lights  have  taken 
the  place  of  lamps;  even  the  barn  is 
lighted  by  electricity,  so  that  the  farmer 
no  longer  needs  to  carry  a  lantern  at 
night.  The  cream  separator  is  run  by 
electricity  and  a  vacuum  cleaner  takes 
the  place  of  the  old  style  broom. 

Many  modern  machines  for  plowing, 
fertilizing,  and  harvesting  have  made  the 
farmer's  work  much  easier.  Some  of  the 
time  that  he  formerly  gave  to  hard  physi- 
cal work  he  now  gives  to  study,  for  it 
requires  more  knowledge  and  thought  to 
farm  now  than  it  used  to.  This  makes 
the  work  far  more  interesting.  It  re- 
quires much  intelligence  to  select  the 
proper  fertilizer,  to  change  or  rotate  crops 
so  as  not  to  exhaust  the  soil,  to  keep  live 
stock  well  and  to  fatten  them  without  too 
great  expense,  and  to  keep  machines  in 
good  running  order.  For  this  reason  the 
farmer  reads  papers  and  books  on  agricul- 
ture and  now  and  then  attends  a  course 
of  lectures  on  some  farm  subject. 

During  recent  years  a  girl  has  been 
the  only  child  upon  this  farm.  The 
things  she  does  suggest  many  of  those 
that  are  done  by  any  country  boy  or  girl. 


There  is  a  fairly  good  school  only  a  half 
mile  distant,  which  she  attends;  and 
mornings    and    evenings  she    3  ^hatboys 

helps     with      the      housework.       and  glrls  do  on 

fViic  form 

She  goes  to  town  two  or  three 
times  a  week,  and  often  rides  horseback, 
since  she  has  a  horse  that  she  helps 
take  care  of  and  may  use  at  any  time. 
She  has  her  own  vegetable  and  flower 
garden,  where  she  spends  a  good  deal  of 
time,  partly  because  she  likes  to  work 
with  plants.  Now  and  then  she  drives  a 
team  while  the  hay  is  being  loaded;  she 
picks  berries  or  apples  in  the  orchard; 
she  gathers  the  eggs,  drives  the  cows  to 
and  from  pasture,  looks  after  some  of  the 
lambs  or  calves,  feeds  the  chickens,  and 
does  a  score  of  other  things  indoors  and 
out.     Most  of  these  tasks  she  enjoys. 

She  sometimes  plays  with  the  neigh- 
bors' children;  but  she  has  a  dog  of  her 
own,  usually  five  or  six  cats  or  kittens,  a 
few  pet  chickens,  and  her  horse,  and  she 
cares  more  for  these  animals  than  for 
other  children  or  even  for  the  motion 
pictures  in  town.  She  has  some  relatives 
in  New  York  City  whom  she  has  often 
visited;  but  she  feels  sorry  for  anyone 
who  must  live  in  a  city,  because  there 
are  so  few  things  that  one  can  do  there. 


1.  Why  is  Buffalo  rather  than  some 
port  on  Lake  Ontario  the  starting  point 
for  westbound  lake  vessels?  Review 
2.  Mention  some  of  the  things  questions 
that  you  would  expect  to  see  in  Buffalo 
harbor.  3.  At  Cleveland.  4.  State  some 
facts  of  interest  about  Detroit.  5.  How 
has  the  country  west  of  Lake  Huron 
changed  in  recent  years?  6.  Explain  the 
importance  of  the  Soo  Canals,  and  what 
one  might  see  there.    7.  Locate  the  mines 


100 


NORTH  AMERICA 


on  the  south  shore  of  I.ake  Superior.  8. 
What  things  in  and  about  Duluth  and 
Superior  would  interest  a  visitor?  9.  De- 
scribe the  voyage  from  the  Soo  Canals  to 
Chicago.  10.  What  advantages  has  Chi- 
cago for  transportation  of  goods?  11. 
How  is  its  location  favorable  for  iron  and 
steel  manufacture?  12.  For  manufactur- 
ing and  shipping  farm  products?  13. 
Compare  the  leading  river  cities  in  size 
with  those  on  the  Great  Lakes.  14.  What 
is  the  chief  disadvantage  of  the  river 
cities?  15.  Explain  the  dependence  of 
these  cities  upon  the  farms.  16.  How  does 
this  country  differ  in  appearance  from  the 
Northeastern  States?  17.  State  differ- 
ences in  the  appearance  of  the  farms.  18. 
Where  does  the  rain  for  these  states  come 
from,  and  how  is  it  distributed?  19.  Dis- 
cuss the  variety  of  farms  in  these  states. 
20.  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  farm 
in  Ohio.     21.  The  work  of  the  grown 


Suggestions 
for  extra 
work 


people  on  this  farm.  22.  Name  some  of 
the  things  that  boys  and  girls  do  on  such 
a  farm. 

1.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

2.  Of  the  principal  rivers  in  these  states. 

3.  The  lakes  lead  eastward  to 
the  Atlantic  coast,  while  the 
rivers   lead   to   the    Gulf   of 
Mexico.     Which  have  the  advantage  in 
the  general  direction  in  which  they  lead? 

4.  From  what  animals  do  the  following 
products  come:  beef;  mutton;  ham;  veal; 
pork;  lard;  sausage;  tallow;  wool; 
leather?  5.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  farm 
described  on  p.  98,  locating  all  the  things 
mentioned.  6.  Learn  the  common  abbre- 
viations for  the  names  of  the  states  in 
this  group.  7.  Here  is  a  question  for 
debate:  Resolved,  that  children  can  have 
more  fun  in  the  country  than  in  the  city. 
8.  One  car  holds  forty  tons  of  iron  ore. 
How  many  cars  would   a  lake  boat  fill 


Fig.  95.  —  Threshing  wheat  ' 

This  is  another  operation  seen  on  farms  where  wheat  is  grown.    At  the  left  you  can  see  the  sacks  of  grain  and 
the  stack  of  straw. 


THE  SOUTHERN   STATES 


tOl 


that  carries  16,000  tons?  9.  What  advan- 
tage, if  any,  have  Chicago  and  Gary  over 
Pittsburgh  for  obtaining  ore  from  the 
Lake  Superior  district  ?  10.  What  dis- 
advantages do  you  see  in  the  fact  that 
navigation  on  the  Great  Lakes  is  closed 
from  November  to  May?  How  can  they 
be  partly  overcome?  11.  Write  a  com- 
position on  the  subject:  The  life  story 
of  a  loaf    of   bread.      12.  What  might 


have  been  the  route  of  the  canal  connect- 
ing the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Hudson 
River,  if  there  had  been  no  rapids  or  falls 
between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario?  13. 
How  do  farms  that  you  have  seen  differ 
from  farms  in  Ohio?  15.  See  ho\^  long  a 
list  you  can  make  of  articles  made  of  iron. 
16.  Of  copper.  17.  How  does  a  farmer 
obtain  drinking  water?  18.  On  Fig.  86 
locate  the  Wheat  Belt;    the  Corn  Belt. 


IV.     The  Southern  States 


1.  Places  to 
which  North- 
erners go 


In  late  fall  or  early  winter  a  great 

many  Northern  people  start  South  for  the 

„    ,      winter.     Some   stop   in  Vir- 

Going  South  .    .  TVT      ii      /-*        T 

for  the  winter  gima  or  North  Carouna,  or 
other  points  a  little  farther 
south.  Many  go  on  to  New 
Orleans  or  to  other  places  on 

the  Gulf  coast.    Whole  trainloads  at  a 

time,  however,  go  straight 

through  to    Florida,   some 

stopping  at  Jacksonville  or 

St.  Augustine;  but  most  of 

them  go  to  places  farther 

on,  including  Palm  Beach 

and  Miami  on  the  east 

coast,  and  Tampa  and  St. 

Petersburg  on  the  west 

coast.   Find  these  towns  on 

Fig.    105.     The    entertain- 
ment of  Northerners  is  the 

chief  business  in  many 

parts  of  Florida  during  the 

winter  and  it  is  prominent 

in  many  places  along  the 

Gulf  coast. 

The    objects   of    such   a 

trip  are  to  escape  the  cold 

winter  of  the  North,  and        „        .  . 

'  Coconut  trees 

to  enjoy  a  vacation.    Even    west  Pahn  Beach 


in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  there 
is  not  very  much  snow,  and  on  the  Gulf 
coast  there  are  many  people  2.  what  the  at- 
who  have  never  seen  snow,  t^^'^t^o'^s  are 

In  New  Orleans,  few  people  need  over- 
coats, because  midwinter  there  is  much 
like  October  in  the  North. 

All  the  outdoor  sports  that  are  com- 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  96.^  A  winter  home  in  Florida 

are  in  the  foreground.    Across  the  water,  at  the  right,  is 

(Fig.  105). 


IC2 


NORTH  AMERICA 


mon  in  summer  in  the  North  can,  there- 
fore, be  enjoyed  on  the  Gulf  coast  and  in 
Florida  throughout  the  winter,  such,  for 
example',  as  tennis,  golf,  boating,  and  fish- 
ing.    Many  of  the  baseball  teams  of  the 


1 

"^ 

r 

pp 

•  -^%H 

^^^^^^^^B^ 

\;.«' 

1 

,    ^,-rf^M 

^•^ 

#    # 

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y 

Fig.  97.  —  Chimney  rock  in  the  Southern  Appalachian 
Mountains 
The  great  size  of  the  rock  is  shown  by  comparing  it 
with  the  people  at  the  foot  of  the  stairway  in  the  notch 
near  the  center  of  the  picture. 

majc^r  leagues  go  there  in  late  winter  to 
begin  their  practice. 

There  is,  however,  danger  of  a  short 
period  of  cold  weather  at  any  time  on  the 
Gulf  coast;  for  there  is  nothing  to  pre- 
vent the  north  winds  from  sweeping  down 
there  from  the  Dakotas.  The  tempera- 
ture at  such  times  may  not  go  much  below 
freezing;  but  it  can  make  people  feel  very 
uncomfortable  for  several  days. 

These  cold  spells  explain  why  so  many 
people  prefer  to  go  to  southern  Florida. 
On  the  trip  South  one  is  likely  to  feel  that 


one  is  almost  at  the  journey's  end  when 
Jacksonville  is  reached.  Yet  the  dis- 
tance from  that  city  to  Miami  is  one  half 
that  from  Washington  to  Jacksonville,  or 
between  300  and  400  miles.  It  never 
freezes  at  Miami,  and  many  of  the  days 
there  are  uncomfortably  warm  in  Janu- 
ary and  February.  One  can  sit  out  of 
doors  in  comfort,  and  many  of  the  people 
spend  a  large  part  of  their  time  in  the 
parks.  They  can  add  sea  bathing  to  the 
other  pleasures  mentioned;  and  one  of 
their  chief  delights  is  to  read  in  the  news- 
papers about  how  cold  it  is  in  the  North. 

One  of  the  popular  routes  from  the 
East  to  the  Pacific  coast  leads  across  the 
South  by  way  of  New  Or- 
leans. Starting  at  New  York, 
one  passes  through  Washing- 
ton, and  then,  perhaps, 
through  Danville  in  Virginia, 
Atlanta  in  Georgia,  and 
Montgomery  in  Alabama. 
From  New  Orleans  one  goes  almost  di- 
rectly west  through  Houston,  San  An- 
tonio, and  El  Paso  in  Texas,  on  to 
southern  California.  Trace  this  route  on 
the  map. 

On  such  a  trip  one  acquainted  with  the 
North  is  likely  to  be  impressed  first  with 
the  likeness  between  the  North  and  the 
South.  On  his  right  he  has  the  ridges  of 
the  Appalachian  Highland  for  several 
hundred  miles,  which  are  a  continuation 
of  the  highlands  of  Pennsylvania;  and 
the  country  through  which  he  passes, 
until  he  reaches  Atlanta,  is  rough  enough 
to  remind  him  of  the  Northeastern  States. 
After  that,  the  surface  becomes  more 
level,  and  from  New  Orleans  to  El  Paso 
most  of  it  is  as  level  as  the  prairies  an<d 
Great  Plains  of  the  North  Central  States. 


Things  of 
special  inter- 
est to  the 
Northerner 
crossing 
these  states 

1.  Similarity 
between  North 
and  South 


THE   SOUTHERa    STATES 


103 


If  one  makes  this  trip  in 
summer,  one  will  be  im- 
pressed with  the  similarity 
in  crops.  Corn  will  be  seen 
all  along  the  route  until 
western  Texas  is  reached, 
where  there  is  too  little  rain 
for  its  growth.  It  covers  a 
much  smaller  portion  of  the 
ground  than  in  the  Corn 
Belt,  but  almost  every 
farmer  raises  some.  It  is 
used  much  more  for  bread 
in  the  South  than  in  the 
North,  for  almost  every 
family  expects  hot  corn  bread  at  least 
once  a  day.  Sonie  rye  and  wheat  will  be 
seen,  and  also  such  vegetables  as  are  com- 
mon in  the  North.  In  fact,  most  kinds 
of  vegetation  that  grow  in  the  North  are 
likely  to  be  seen  on  this  journey  also. 

Some  very  important  differences,  how- 
ever, will  be  noted.  Soon  after  entering 
2.  striking  Virginia,  one  will  be  struck 
differences        ^-^j^  ^j^^  amourit  of  unused 

land.     There  are  fine  farms   here    and 


Fig.  98.  —  A  tobacco  field  in  the  Southern  States 


©  Cook 


Office  of  Farm  Management,  U,  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture 

Fig.  99. — A  farm  in  Virginia 
Can  you  tell  from  the  elevations  as  shown  on  Fig.  105  whether  this  farm 
is  in  the  eastern  or  the  western  part  of  Virginia? 


there  with  good  buildings,  and  herds  of 
cattle  and  sheep  feeding  in  rich  pastures ; 
but  for  long  distances  there  „.  The  amount 
are  no  houses  and  the  ground  «/  unused  land 
is  covered  with  forest  or  underbrush. 
The  same  impression  is  received  through 
much  of  the  journey.  In  fact,  les?  than 
a  third  of  all  the  land  in  the  South  has 
been  improved,  while  in  IlUnois  and  Iowa 
more  than  three  fourths  of  the  surface 
are  under  cultivation. 

In  southern  Virginia,  the 
traveler  begins  to  see  to- 
bacco fields,  and  j,.  em^^^  ^j 
as  he  proceeds  tobacco  fields 
into  North  Carolina  the 
number  greatly  increases. 
Tobacco  is  raised  in  several 
Northern  states,  but  in  no 
one  of  them  is  so  much 
grown  as  in  the  region 
about  Durham,  in  North 
Carolina.  Can  you  recall 
some  of  the  advertisements 
of  Durham  tobacco  that 
you  have  seen? 

Each    tobacco    field    is 


104 


NORTH  AMERICA 


©  Portland,  Oregon,  Chamber  of  Commerce 

Cotton  stored  for  shipment 


Fig.  100 

small,  containing  usually  from  two  to  ten 
acres,  because  the  plant  requires  much 
labor  and  each  family  cultivates  only  as 
much .  as  it  can  care  for  alone.  But 
there  are  so  many  fields,  extending  over 
a  distance  of  200  miles  in  Virginia 
and  North  Carolina,  that  one  soon  finds 
that  tobacco  is  more  of  a  Southern 
than  a  Northern  crop. 


Shortly   after   the   train 
passes  the  tobacco  region,  a 

kind     of     plant  c.  Extent  of 

not  seen  any-  cotton  fields 
where  in  the  North  begins 
to  appear ;  and  for  the  next 
1,200  miles  in  our  journey 
we  note  that  it  occupies 
about  as  large  a  part  of  the 
cultivated  land  as  does  corn 
in  the  Corn  Belt  of  the 
North  Central  States.  This 
is  the  cotton  plant.  As  in 
the  North,  other  crops  are 
seen  on  many  farms,  but  cot- 
ton is  by  far  the  most  com- 
mon. This  region  is  there- 
fore called  the  Cotton  Belt. 
Our  journey  carries  us  the  whole  length 
of  the  Cotton  Belt.  Find  out  from  Fig. 
101  what  states  are  crossed  and  in  which 
of  them  the  traveler  finds  the  most  ex- 
tensive cultivation  of  cotton. 

Two  other  crops  not  grown  in  the 
North  are  seen  in  the  neighborhood  of 
New  Orleans.  One  is  sugar  cane,  from 
which  sugar  is  made;    and  the  other  is 


TED  STATES 
COTTON 
ACREAGE  1909 


From  The  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture  {1910) 

Fig.  101 
Cotton  is  grown  also  in  Arizona  and  southern  California,  but  the  area  there  devoted  to  this  crop  is  much  smaller 
than  that  in  the  "Cotton  States." 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


105 


rice.  Sugar  cane  looks  like 
corn,  but  grows  taller  and 
d.  The  location    has    a    thlckcr 

and  appearance  gtalk.  FrOm  a 
of  two  other  j  •     +  •<-  U 

crops  not  grown  Qistance,  ine 
in  the  North       qj^q  g^n  hardly 

be  distinguished  from  the 
other.  The  cane,  however, 
is  injured  by  frost,  and  re- 
quires nearly  a  year  for  full 
growth.  The  only  place  in 
the  United  States  where 
much  of  it  is  cultivated  is 
on  the  low,  flat  lands  of  the 
Mississippi  delta  (Fig.  105), 
which  in  winter  are  under 
the  influence  of  the  warm, 
moist  winds  from  the  Gulf. 
The  traveler  would  find 
from  one  third  to  one  half  of  all  the 
cultivated  land  in  that  section  planted 
in  sugar  cane. 

It  is  the  juice  of  the  cane  that  produces 
the  sugar.  This  is  pressed  out  of  the  cane 
and  boiled  down  in  immense  sugar  fac- 
tories in  Louisiana.  One  of  the  interest- 
ing sights  in  the  sugar-cane  region  in  the 
fall  is  that  of  both  children  and  grown 
people  chewing  away  on  pieces  of  cane  a 
foot  or  more  in  length. 

Rice  is  the  principal  crop  farther  west 
along  the  coast  of  Louisiana  and  Texas. 
According  to  the  season,  the  appearance 
of  the  fields  varies  greatly.  In  the  spring 
they  look  much  like  fields  of  wheat  or 
oats.  But  rice,  after  its  growth  is  well 
started,  requires  one  half  inch  of  water 
every  day  for  ninety  days ;  and  although 
the  rainfall  is  heavy  along  the  Gulf  coast, 
only  about  twenty  inches  fall  in  that  time. 
Is  this  more  or  less  than  half  of  what  is 
needed?    On  this  account,  the  fields  must 


©  Brown  Bros. 

Fig.  102.— A  rice  field 

The  rice  fields  vary  in  size  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  acres, 
field  is  divided  by  ridges  into  little  flooded  squares. 


Each 


be  flooded,  and,  as  they  are  separated 
from  one  another  by  embankments,  they 
have  the  appearance,  for  about  three 
months,  of  many  little  lakes  (Fig.  102). 

Toward  harvest  time,  the  ground  is 
allowed  to  dry  out  and  harden,  so  that 
machines  may  be  driven  over  it.  The  rice 
is  then  harvested  in  much  the  same  way 
as  wheat  or  oats. 

In  one  respect,  the  population  of  the 
Southern  States  differs  greatly  from  that 
in  the  North.  In  traveling  in  ^  ^^^  ^  _ 
the  South  one  soon  finds  that  ence  in  the 
negroes  form  a  large  part  of  p^p^^'^^^ 
the  population.  In  some  states  more 
than  one  half  of  all  the  inhabitants  are 
negroes. 

The  South  is  the  region  in  which 
slavery  formerly  existed  on  a  large  scale, 
because  here  negro  labor  was  profitable, 
and  these  negroes  are  the  descendants  of 
the  former  slaves.  They  are  particularly 
valuable  workmen  in  this  section  because 


106 


NORTH   AMERICA 


they  can  stand  the  hot,  moist  summers 
better  than  most  white  people.  Alto- 
gether there  are  about  10,000,000  of  them 
in  the  United  States,  of  whom  more  than 
8,000,000  live  in  the  Southern  States. 


Photo  by  U.  S.  Army  Service 

Fig.  103.  — Richmond 
On  what  river  is  Richmond  located  (Fig.  105)?    For  Richmond's  railroad 
lines,  see  Fig.  150. 


There  is,  also,  a  very  marked  difference 
between  the  North  and  the  South  in  the 
,  „.-  number  of  large   cities.     In 

/.  Difference  in  *-' 

the  number  of  golug  from  New  York  to 
large  cities  chicago,  by  Way  of  Buffalo  or 
Pittsburgh,  one  passes  through  several 
great  cities.  Can  you  name  some  of 
them?  On  this  entire  route,  however, 
from  Washington  to  El  Paso,  the  traveler 
passes  through  only  one  very  large  city — 
New  Orleans.  The  next  largest,  located 
on  or  near  this  route,  are  Richmond,  in 
Virginia  (Fig.  103);  Atlanta,  in  Georgia; 
Birmingham,  in  Alabama;  and  Houston 
and  San  Antonio,  in  Texas.  Yet  only  one 
of  these  has  as  many  as  200,000  inhab- 
itants. Locate  these  cities  on  Fig.  105, 
and  note  their  populations  on  p.  311. 
What  suggestion  does  this  absence  of 
large  cities  make  to  you  about  the  prom- 


inence of  farming  in  the  South?     About 
the  prominence  of  manufacturing? 

We  have  seen  that  the  South  grows 
three  valuable  crops — cotton,  sugar  cane, 
and    rice  —  that    cannot    be  a  fourth  ad- 
raised    in    the  vantage  in 

agnculture  of 

INorth.    Citrus  the  South 

fruits     are     a   overtheNorth 

fourth  Southern  product. 
Oranges  and  lemons  are 
raised  in  many  places  along 
the  Gulf  coast;  but  they  are 
safe  from  frost  only  in  the 
southern  half  of  Florida. 
There  one  finds  grove  after 
grove  of  oranges  and  grape- 
fruit, with  some  lemons 
and  limes, 

Florida  is  a  low,  flat 
country  and  swampy  in 
many  parts.  But  these 
groves  are  very  beautiful, 
especially  when  laden  with  fruit.  Some 
of  the  trees  bear  blossoms,  green  fruit, 
and  ripe  fruit  all  at  the  same  time.  As 
in  the  orchards  in  the  North,  the  trees 
almost  break  with  the  weight  they  carry, 
and  the  bright,  richly  colored  ripe  fruit 
contrasts  strongly  with  the  green  leaves. 
At  a  short  distance,  the  oranges  can  hardly 
be  distinguished  from  the  grapefruit;  but 
the  latter  are  larger  and  grow  in  clusters 
somewhat  like  a  bunch  of  grapes.  This 
is  the  reason  for  their  name. 

Some  bananas  are  produced.  These  are 
a  tropical  fruit;  but  the  only  tropical 
plant  extensively  cultivated  is  the  pine- 
apple, so  called  because  it  resembles  a 
large  pine  cone.  This  fruit  grows  on  a 
very  short  stem  surrounded  by  spiny- 
edged  leaves  that  entirely  cover  the 
ground.    In  looking  over  a  field  one  sees 


THE   SOUTHERN   STATES 


107 


only  these  leaves,  and  the  pineapples 
themselves  from  two  to  four  feet  above 
the  ground  (Fig.  104).  Florida  produces 
few  lemons;  but  one  fourth  of  the 
oranges,  and  about  three  fourths  of  the 
grapefruit,  limes,  and  pineapples  raised 
in  our  country  come  from  that  state. 
Most  of  the  remainder  comes  from  Cal- 
ifornia (p.  140). 

The  South  has  still  another  advantage 

for  agriculture.    Anyone  living  in  a  large 

Northern  city  has  noticed  that 

of  the  South     fresh    string    beans,    lettuce, 

m  raising         g^j^^j  radishes  can  be  obtained 

small  fruits 

and  vegetables  at  some  of  the  stores  through 
the  winter;  and  that  new  po- 
tatoes, fresh  peas,  asparagus,  and  straw- 
berries are  in  the  market  in  March,  even 
before  the  snow  is  all  gone.  Have  you 
wondered  how  this  is  possible? 

These  products  come  mainly  from  the 
distant  South.  The  winters  are  so  warm 
along  the  coast,  and  the  sandy  soils  are 
warmed  so  readily,  that  some  of  these 
foods  are  raised  there 
throughout  the  winter,  and 
others  are  planted  while  it 
is  still  cold  in  the  North. 
For  example,  in  Florida  two 
crops  of  string  beans  are 
usually  produced  in  the 
winter;  one,  planted  in  Oc- 
tober, is  ready  for  market 
in  early  December;  and  the 
other,  planted  in  January, 
is  shipped  in  early  March. 
All  the  gardeners  in  one 
neighborhood  may  grow 
little  else  than  lettuce,  while 
those  in  another  place  may 
raise  only  radishes.  Thus 
many  truck  gardens  in  Flor- 


ida and  other  Southern  districts  keep  the 
tables  in  the  North  well  suj^plied  with 
vegetables  and  small  fruits  through  the 
winter. 

The  principal  markets  are  in  the  dense- 
ly populated  Northern  states.  As  the 
season  advances,  these  supplies  come  from 
regions  nearer  at  hand.  Then  the  more 
distant  Southern  sections  are  at  a  disad- 
vantage and  must  turn  to  other  products. 

Without  fast  trains  the  South  and  the 
North  could  not  benefit  from  each  other 
in  this  way.  Thus  we  are  all  dependent 
upon  one  another,  and  upon  the  improve- 
ments of  the  past,  for  most  of  the  things 
that  we  receive. 

While  some  farms  in  the  South  grow 
only  garden  truck  or  sugar  cane  or  rice, 
mixed  farming  is  common  in  How  South- 
many  districts.  The  South- 
ern farm  of  100  or  200  acres, 
owned  by  the  man  who  culti- 
vates it,  looks  very  much  like 
the  farms  in  Ohio.     There  is  a  well-built 


era  farms 
compare  with 
the  one  in 
Ohio  de- 
scribed on 
p.  98 


Pineapples  in  Florida 


1U0° 


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SOUTHERN  STATES 

POLITICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  MAP 

Scale  of  statute  miles     , 
0       25      50  100  150  200 

National  capital  @  ®  State  capitals 

Important  highways- - 

HEIGHTS  IN  FEET 

Over  10,000 
6000  to  10,000 
2000  to  5000 
1000  to  2000 
500  to  1000 
Sea  level  to  SOO 


Fig.  105 


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Es  with  over  200,000 ^^Ncw  Ofleans 

es  with  100,000  to  200,000 Memphis 

es  with  50,000  to  100,000 Charleston 

er  cities , Austin 


89- 


Fig.  105 


C.Sab'e 

:-KeyWe.t^^:^>^:^V 


110 


NORTH  AMERICA 


brick  or  frame  house  near  the  road,  with 
other  buildings  about  it  for  horses,  cows, 
1.  How  the  machinery,  pigs,  and  chickens. 
7r1l  SthT  There  is  a  garden,  where  both 
in  Ohio  "Irish"   and   sweet   potatoes 

are  raised,  together  with  cabbages  and 
other  vegetables;  and  there  is  an  orchard. 


Yet  there  are  some  striking  differences 
in  appearance.  The  large  barns  that  are 
so  common  in  the  North  Central  States 
are  lacking,  because  the  short,  mild  win- 
ters do  not  call  for  much  storage  of  feed 
for  live  stock  or  for  large  buildings  in 
which  the  stock  may  be  protected.    One 


fas-. 


«L. 


Oil 
Coal 


JHl 


iDri/ 
iFurtn 


\-z- — 

•.Small 
XFruita 


•Products 


Coat  I 
Oil 


Com 


Corn{\Gaa 
^  Oil 


ICotton 
I  Cotton    6* 


Cum 


."^ 


M       g- 


M 


)'wheat 


fobttcco 
Corn 


Cff^' 


,  Corn  (  (^« 

Wheat        <^°'  I  /^•'lv=^»    /-^-^  Gar&4 

Cotton      ^y    S  V      ^^ 

•Jrn  \  Corn    \    «• 


Mules 
Wheat  . 


V. 


Girden  \    {         Ciftlon 

Truck 


y>  i  It  e  >L  «  4  *  «  »■  I  Tuiventin^or^ 

■ — r 'X zi'«^_r 


^ 

^ 

►^ 


,Oranaet, 
»  Pomelo' 


M     E 


West       81°    from  Greenitich      87  = 


Wui..Ei.,<.Co..H.V. 


Fig.  108.  ^  The  more  important  products  of  the  Southern  States 
This  map  shows  you  what  is  likely  to  be  the  chief  crop  grown  on  both  the  large  and  the  small  farms  in  each  dis- 
trict of  the  South.     In  what  sections  are  lumber  or  the  products  of  mines  or  quarries  also  important?     (Pomelo  is 
another  name  for  grapefruit.) 


There  is  also  some  pasture  land,  usually 
some  corn,  and  often  fields  of  wheat  and 
oats. 

Life  on  such  farms  is  much  like  that 
on  the  farm  described  on  pp.  98-99. 
Neighbors  are  not  far  away ;  nearly  every 
such  farmer  has  a  telephone,  the  mail  is 
dehvered  every  day,  and  automobiles  are 
common. 


also  sees  patches  of  tobacco  much  oftener 
than  in  the  North ;  cotton  is  a  very  com- 
mon crop  in  many  states;  and  in  most 
states  there  is  sure  to  be  a  field  of  sorghum 
for  making  sorghum  molasses. 

There  are,  also,  large  farms,  called 
plantations,  which  contain  several  hun- 
dreds or  even  thousands  of  acres,  and 
which  differ  much  more  from  the  Ohio 


THE  SOUTHERN   STATES 


111 


farm.  Corn  and  cotton  and,  in  Louisiana 
and  eastern  Texas,  sugar  cane,  are  the 
2.  How  the  plan-  leading  crops  upon  these,  and 
wi?rthe°ohir^  the  people  who  do  the  work 
farm  are  mainly  negroes.     In  many 

cases  the  owner  lives  in  the  nearby  town 
and  has  an  overseer  to  look  after  the 
work.  Oftener,  however,  he  lives  in  a 
beautiful  home  on  the  plantation. 

The  portion  of  the  land  that  the  owner 
does  not  cultivate  is  divided  into  small 
patches  called  ''one-horse"  or  ''two- 
horse"  farms,  which  are  rented  out  to 
negro  tenants.  The  size  of  the  farm 
allotted  to  each  negro  depends  upon  the 
number  of  horses  he  owns  and  the 
amount  of  help  he  has  in  his  family.  A 
one-horse  farm  contains  about  twenty 
acres,  and  the  negro  family  that  works 
it  lives  in  a  small  cabin.  Thus  a 
plantation  often  has  one  fine  residence 
with  a  number  of  cabins  scattered  over 
it.  Make  a  drawing  of  such  a  plantation 
as  you  imagine  it. 

Life  in  the  hilly  and  mountainous  sec- 
tions of  the  South  is  different  from 
that  on  the  small  farms  and 
hiuy  and^moun-  the  plantations.  Note  in  Fig. 
onhTsou^"'"'  105  how  extensive  these  sec- 
tions are,  and  the  states  in 
which  they  are  found.  The  people  here 
till  only  a  small  part  of  their  land,  and 
raise  chiefly  corn  and  potatoes.  They 
have  little  to  sell  and,  therefore,  buy 
little.  Their  houses  are  usually  small 
and  built  of  logs,  and  are  poorly  fur- 
nished. Their  roads  are  very  poor  and 
railroads  are  few,  so  that  one  sees  few 
persons  outside  of  one's  own  neighbor- 
hood. Such  a  life  seems  to  outsiders  to 
have  few  attractions.  Yet  these  people 
love  the  solitude  of  the  forests  and  the 


freedom  that  they  have  there;  and  they 
would  not  readily  leave  their  mountain 
homes  for  the  open  plains. 

Sixty  years  ago  com  and  tobacco  were 
raised  in  the  South,  and  some  hemp. 
Sugar  cane  and  rice  were  also  ^^^^  ^^^  ^j 
grown,  but  only  in  a  few  sec-  King  Cotton 
tions.  But  the  only  crop  that     i.  How  he  got 

n       •  1        i  I         his  name 

was  really  important  was  cot- 
ton; this  was*  produced  in  large  quantities. 

In  those  days,  little  of  the  cotton  was 
manufactured  in  the  South;  in  fact,  the 
Southerners  did  not  want  to  manufacture. 
They  preferred  to  give  all  their  attention 
to  the  growing  of  the  raw  cotton,  letting 
other  people  do  the  manufacturing.  The 
money  they  received  from  cotton  was 
enough  to  supply  all  necessary  comforts, 
and  even  luxuries. 

Much  of  the  manufacturing  of  the 
cotton  into  cloth  took  place  in  New 
England.  Much  of  it,  also,  was  done  in 
old  England.  In  both  of  those  regions 
scores  of  factories  and  thousands  of 
workers  were  occupied  entirely  with 
cotton  manufacture;  and  the  principal, 
indeed,  almost  the  only  place  from  which 
they  could  obtain  the  raw  material  was 
the  South.  If  for  any  reason  the  South 
withheld  it,  all  these  people  and  the  many 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  others  depend- 
ent upon  them  soon  began  to  suffer. 

The  Southerners  came  to  realize  how 
important  they  were  in  the  world.  Cot- 
ton formed  then,  as  it  does  now,  the 
greater  part  of  the  clothing  for  both  the 
rich  and  the  poor,  in  cool  climates  as  well 
as  in  warm.  People,  therefore,  had  to 
have  it.  One  day  a  Southern  Congress- 
man at  Washington  made  a  speech  about 
cotton,  boasting  that  all  the  world  had  to 
come  to  the  South  to  buy;  and  he  ended 


112 


NORTH  AMERICA 


by  declaring  proudly  that  Cotton  was 
King  and  all  the  people  of  the  world  were 
his  subjects.  From  that  time  on  people 
often  spoke  of  King  Cotton. 


Fig.  107. —Picking  cotton 
Notice  that  entire  families  take  part  in  this 

Southern  Cotton  had  not  always  been 
a  king.  He  came  to  America  as  an  un- 
„  „       ^      known   immigrant,     and  for 

2.  How  a  stran-  ^  ®        ^  ' 

ger  made  Cotton  200  years  lived  in  Southern 

so  powerful  ,  Till  r 

gardens  and  on  the  edges  oi 
plantations.  His  great  neighbors  Tobac- 
co and  Rice  hardly  noticed  him;  and  he 
was  of  little  importance  in  the  world  at 
large  in  comparison  with  Flax  and  Wool. 

The  difficulty  that  held  him  back  was 
the  fact  that  the  fibers  were  so  short  and 
clung  so  tightly  to  the  seed  that  there 
was  no  easy  way  of  getting  them  off.  It 
was  a  day's  work  for  a  man  to  separate 
more  than  a  pound  or  two  from  the  seed. 
Under  such  circumstances,  it  did  not  pay 
to  allow  Cotton  to  occupy  much  land. 

In  1792  an  inventive  Yankee,  who  was 
teaching  in  Georgia,  noticed  how  slow 


this  work  was  and  set  to  work  to  make 
some  improvement.  He  soon  produced  a 
machine  that  separated  the  fibers  from 
the  seed  with  wonderful  ease  and  speed; 
and  it  could  be  made  so 
cheaply  that  it  was  widely 
used.  This  machine  became 
known  as  the  cotton  gin. 
The  man  who  invented  it 
was  Eli  Whitney. 

The  effect  was  wonderful. 
It  now  paid  to  give  ground 
to  cotton  and  hundreds  of 
acres  were  soon  grown, 
where  before  there  had  been 
only  one.  New  lands  were 
opened  up ;  new  towns  were 
founded;  and  new  ships 
were  built  to  carry  cotton 
to  New  England  and  to 
Europe.  The  South  grew 
by  leaps  and  bounds,  all 
owing  to  cotton.  And  it 
was  Eli  Whitney  who  had  made  it  so 
powerful. 

Although   cotton   is   so   necessary   to 
everyone,  about  two  thirds  of  all  that  is 
produced    in    the    world    is     3.  why  he  es- 
grown  in  the  Southern  States.     ^g^J^^i^' 
Why  does  King  Cotton  thus     the  south 
prefer  the  South  to  all  other  regions? 

The  reason  is  that  he  is  very  particular 
about  where  he  lives,  and  the  South 
just  suits  him.  For  example,  he  cannot 
endure  cold;  and  in  order  that  he  may 
thrive,  the  growing  season  must  be  free 
from  frost  for  as  many  as  200  days. 
How  many  months  is  that?  On  the  other 
hand,  the  weather  must  not  be  too 
hot;  tropical  heat  is  too  severe  for  him. 
These  requirements  limit  him  to  a  very 
few  countries. 


Photo  by  Brown  Bros. 


work 


THE   SOUTHERN   STATES 


113 


There  are  still  other  requirements.  He 
demands  much  rain;  but  he  objects  to 
the  heavy  tropical  downpours.  Gentle 
and  frequent  rains  please  him  best  dur- 
ing the  growing  season,  and  he  does  not 
want  heavy  beating  rains  after  the  pods,  or 
bolls,  burst  open.  Also,  the  soil  must  be 
deep  and  fertile.  Partly  for  the  last 
reason,  he  keeps  away  from  the  low, 
sandy  coastlands  in  the  South.  Nor  does 
he  Uke  the  hills  and  mountains  in  western 
North  Carolina  and  eastern  Tennessee,  as 
is  suggested  in  Fig.  101.  That  figure 
shows  what  a  vast  area  in  our  Southern 
states  meets  all  these  conditions,  and 
therefore  has  been  chosen  for  his  king- 
dom.   In  all  this  region  he  rules  supreme. 

King  Cotton  is  very  exacting  toward 

his  subjects.    Unlike  Wheat,  he  will  not 

^    permit   an  extensive   use   of 

4.  The  demands 

he  makes  upon   machmery;    but  he  requires 

his  subjects  ,  j.      /•  i  i  i 

a  great  amount  of  hand  work 
instead.  Thus  he  keeps  a 
large  number  of  persons 
in  his  service,  men,  women, 
and  children,  throughout 
almost  the  entire  year.  In- 
deed, many  thousands  of 
families  earn  almost  their 
entire  livelihood  by  work- 
ing in  the  cotton  fields. 
Hardly  any  negro  child  is 
too  small,  or  any  negro 
Uncle  or  Mammy  too  old 
or  too  feeble,  to  help  in 
this  work. 

In  March  or  April  they 
plant  the  seeds  in  rows  like 

corn,  very  thickly  in  order  ©chariesL.Frawk 

to    insure    a    good    crop.  Fig.  108. — Loading  cotton  at  New  Orleans 

When    the    plants    are    well  ^f'^   *^^*^"^^  ^'^^   rectangular  objects   is  a   bale,   tightly   pressed 

1  •       1  together  and  wrapped  m  burlap   to  keep  it  clean.    Cotton  is  being  put 

up  they  thin  them  out,  work     aboard  this  steamer.    Is  it,  therefore,  probably  a  river  or  an  ocean  vessel? 


that  is  done  with  a  heavy  hoe  and  that 
is  called  chopping  to  a  stand.  Then  all 
through  the  long,  hot  summer  they  care- 
fully hoe  and  cultivate  the  plants,  killing 
the  weeds  and  keeping  the  soil  in  good 
condition. 

Meanwhile  the  plants  are  preparing  a 
harvest.  In  the  early  summer  beautiful 
blossoms  appear,  first  white  and  then 
pink.  These  soon  drop  off,  and  their 
place  is  taken  by  small,  green  squares 
which  become  large  and  round  and  are 
then  called  bolls.  Finally  the  bolls  burst 
open  and  the  white,  fleecy  fiber  —  King 
Cotton  —  comes  into  view  all  over  the 
field.  What  can  you  think  of  that  looks 
like  it?  The  cotton  picking  is  then  ready 
to  begin. 

A  score  or  more  of  persons  —  whole 
families  together,  negroes  for  the  most 
part  —  enter  a  field;  and  they  have  a 
jolly  time  at  the  work.    Each  picker  car- 


114 


NORTH  AMERICA 


ries  a  sack  slung  over  his  shoulder,  so 
long  that  it  may  even  drag  on  the  ground 
behind  (Fig.  107).  Since  the  plants  grow 
only  from  three  to  five  feet  in  height, 
even  the  children  can  easily  help  in  the 
work.  They  stick  the  thumb  and  first 
two  fingers  into  the  boll  and  take  out  the 
cotton  with  a  quick  motion.  A  girl  with 
slender,  nimble  fingers  may  do  this  far 
more  quickly  than  a  strong  man  with 
clumsy  hands  used  to  holding  a  hoe. 


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it 

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ftr^Jwrr^liWlilitf 

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^iMBB^tj  -  •"                     ^'^^SSfliB^H 

Courtesy  of  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron,  and  Railroad  Co. 

Fig.  109.  —  Coke  and  ore  bins,  Binningham 


Picking  begins  early  in  September,  and 
the  last  picking  may  be  as  late  as  Christ- 
mas or  New  Year's.      If  the 
yield  is  good,  there  may  be  one 


S.  How  he  in- 
fluences trans- 
portation and 
manufacturing       bale     of     500     pOUuds     to     the 

acre ;  but  less  than  half  a  bale 
is  more  nearly  the  usual  crop. 

King  Cotton  keeps  thousands  of  sub- 
jects at  work  for  him  in  the  South  in  other 
ways  than  on  the  farms.  As  the  cotton 
is  picked,  it  is  hauled  to  the  gin.  For- 
merly, these  machines  were  small  and 
located  on  the  plantations;  but  now  they 
are  much  larger  and,  together  with  the 


baling  press,  are  in  the  towns.  The  far- 
mer drives  a  huge  load  of  the  loose  cotton 
to  the  gin  and  the  press,  and  quickly  gets 
back  the  baled  cotton  and  the  seed.  Two 
thirds  of  the  weight  of  the  cotton,  as  it  is 
picked,  is  in  the  seed. 

Then  the  cotton  is  sent  to  the  factory. 
Before  being  shipped  any  great  distance, 
the  bales  are  usually  compressed  to  about 
half  their  size  as  they  come  from  the  gin, 
so  that  they  will  not  take  up  so  much 
room.  The  traveler  in  the 
South  sees  bales  of  cotton 
everywhere  in  transport : 
at  the  railroad  station,  on 
freight  trains,  on  river 
boats,  and  at  the  ocean 
docks  (Fig.  108).  Every 
coast  city,  as  for  example 
New  Orleans,  Savannah, 
and  Galveston  (Fig.  105), 
is  a  center  for  the  export 
of  this  product. 

About  one  fourth  of  all 
the  cotton  raised  in  the 
South  goes  to  factories 
there.  Travelers  speeding 
across  North  and  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Alabama,  see 
many  long,  low  brick  buildings,  often 
with  tall  chimneys.  These  are  cotton 
mills.  Very  often,  these  mills  are  in  the 
country,  with  no  more  buildings  near 
them  than  are  necessary  for  the  workmen 
and  their  families.  In  the  North  fac- 
tories are  usually  located  in  cities;  but 
in  the  South  a  large  share  of  the  cotton 
mills  are  in  the  country  or  in  small  towns. 
The  cotton  seed  was,  for  fully  a  hun- 
dred years,  considered  a  nuisance  except 
for  planting;  but  now  it  is  about  one 
sixth   as  valuable  as  the   cotton   fiber; 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


115 


and  it  leads  to  many  kinds  of  manufac- 
turing. An  oil  is  pressed  from  it  that  is 
used  in  place  of  olive  oil;  also  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  lard,  and  for  other  purposes. 
The  hulls  are  used  for  fertihzer,  and  the 
cake  that  is  left  after  the  oil  is  extracted 
makes  a  good  feed  for  live  stock. 

We  saw  that  King  Cotton  has  more 
subjects  on  the  farms  in  the  South  than 
any  other  crop  there.  Likewise,  he  keeps 
more  persons  at  work  for  him  in  trans- 
portation and  in  manufacturing  than  any 
other  product.  Hundreds  of  thousands 
are  serving  him  there  all  the  time ;  he  is  a 
powerful  king  in  a  very  wide  realm. 

Everybody  is  proud  of  Pittsburgh  as  a 
manufacturing  center,  for  reasons  that 
How  the  you  can  recall  (p.  78).  Bir- 
manufac-         mingham,  in  Alabama,  is  often 

tunng  about  n     t      i        -r»«       i  i         <•      i 

Birmingham  Called  the  Flttsburgh  01  the 
compares         South,  and  it  even  has  one 

with  that  .  ' 

about  Pitts-  important  advantage  over  the 
burgh  Pennsylvania   city.     Coal  is 

just  as  conveniently  located  and  iron  ore 
far  more  so.  When  you  recall  the  dis- 
tance iron  ore  must  be  carried  in  order  to 
reach  the  blast  furnaces  of  Pittsburgh 
(p.  78),  you  can  see  how  important  the 
advantage  of  Birmingham  is.  Iron  can 
be  manufactured  more  cheaply  in  the 
latter  place  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
United  States.  Birmingham  is  much 
smaller  than  Pittsburgh;  but  it  is,  also, 
very  much  younger.  It  manufactures  a 
large  amount  of  iron  and  steel,  and  is  the 
most  rapidly  growing  city  in  the  South. 
This  section  does  not  yet  compare  with 
Pennsylvania  in  output  of  iron  and  steel; 
but  it  is  the  leading  center  for  that  indus- 
try in  the  South  and  has  a  fine  prospect 
for  growth. 
While  the  South  is  not  so  well  supplied 


with  bituminous  coal  as  the  North,  sev- 
eral of  the  states  have  a  large  amount. 
They  have  other  things,  also, 

.       .    1        .,  1  -  ,     .        Further  com- 

to  take  the  place  oi  coal   m   parisonofthe 
manufacturing.    One  of  these    ^°"^  ^^*^ 
is  running  water.     The  heavy   advantages 
rainfall  in  these  states  (Fig.    ^^^^g"""*^*^ 
146) ,  particularly  in  the  South- 
ern   Appalachian     Mountains,    supplies 
a  great  amount  of  water  to  the  streams, 
and  therefore  a  great  amount  of  power 
for  manufacturing.    Much  of  it  is  already 
converted  into  electricity  for  use  in  the 
cotton  mills  and  other  factories  in  the 
areas  bordering  the  mountains. 

Other  substitutes  for  coal  are  oil  and 
gas.  The  traveler  in  Oklahoma,  Texas, 
and  Louisiana  sees  hundreds  of  derricks, 
marking  valuable  oil  wells.  In  north- 
eastern Oklahoma  they  are  especially 
numerous.  Recently  there  has  been 
great  excitement  in  all  these  sections 
over  the  discovery  of  oil,  and  more  oil  is 
now  produced  in  the  South  than  in  any 
other  section  of  our  country. 

The  South  has  been  too  much  occupied 
with  agriculture  to  make  full  use  of  its 
advantages  for  manufacturing,  but  it  is 
now  turning  its  attention  much  more  to 
this  form  of  industry. 

You  remember  (p.  86)  that  the  stumps 
of  trees  in  the  Great  Lakes  region  are 
about  all  that  is  left  of  former  How  the 
forests  in  that   part   of  our  South  is  re- 

^  peating  the 

country;      also,       that       those   experience  of 

northern  states  must  now  c^enfrdttates 
obtain  a  large  part  of  their  in  treatment 
lumber  from  distant  sections  °  ^^  °^®^*^ 
of  the  country.  The  South  is  exhaust- 
ing its  extensive  forests  in  much  the 
same  way.  Formerly  the  belt  of  long- 
leaf  pines  extended  all  along  the  coast 


116 


NORTH   AMERICA 


from  Chesapeake  Bay  far  into  Texas. 
They  are  very  different  from  the  pines 
of  the  North,  having  longer  needles  and 
a  much  harder  wood  that  is  especially 
valuable  for  building.    Besides,  the  sap 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 


Fig.  110. — Collecting  crude  turpentine  from  the 
Southern  pine 

Crude  turpentine  is  obtained  by  tapping  the  tree.  One 
method  of  tapping  is  to  cut  V-shaped  scars  in  the  tree 
with  a  notch  below,  thus  forming  a  rude  cup.  The 
liquid  oozes  out  of  the  scars  and  is  collected  in  the  ridge 
cup,  from  which  it  is  dipped  by  a  paddle.  From  time  to 
time  fresh  scars  are  made  higher  and  higher  on  the  tree. 

that  oozes  forth  when  the  bark  is  scraped 
away  is  made  into  turpentine,  tar,  and 
pitch  (Fig.  110).  These  are  called  naval 
stores,  and  are  used  in  making  paints, 
varnishes,  and  many  other  things. 

The  people  of  North  Carolina  used  to 
be  called  ''Tar  Heels"  because  so  large 
a  quantity  of  naval  stores  was  produced 
there.  But  that  state  and  several  others 
have  nearly  exhausted  their  hard  pine. 
A  trip  along  the  coast  from  Virginia  to 


New  Orleans  would  readily  show  this.  In 
North  and  South  Carolina  one  would  see 
many  cut-over  areas,  with  old  sawdust 
piles,  abandoned  sawmills,  and  even 
abandoned  towns.  While  some  lumber 
still  comes  from  these  states,  most  of  the 
Southern  pine  is  now  obtained  farther 
west,  from  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  Arkansas. 

The  hardwood  forest  region  contains 
such  trees  as  oak  and  hickory.  What 
are  some  of  the  uses  of  such  woods? 
Most  of  our  hardwoods  now  come  from 
the  South,  Memphis  and  Nashville  being 
our  most  important  hardwood  centers. 
The  South  now  produces  more  than  a 
third  of  all  the  lumber  used  in  the  United 
States. 

That  cannot,  however,  be  kept  up. 
While  there  are  still  very  extensive  forests 
in  the  western  states  of  this  group  as 
well  as  in  the  Appalachian  Highland, 
the  Southern  forest  area  is  becoming 
smaller  each  year;  and  unless  care  is 
taken,  the  South,  like  the  North,  will 
soon  be  seeking  its  lumber  from  distant 
places.  Many  persons  believe  that  such 
destruction  of  forests  is  a  very  serious 
mistake.     Can  you  suggest  why? 

There  are  many  things  about  New  Or- 
leans that  make  it  an  especially  interest- 
ing city.     For  example,  it  is    , 

,  ,  ,  ,^.      .      .       .      Interesting 

located    on    the    Mississippi    facts  about 
River,    and    while    in    most    New  Orleans 
places  people  go  down  hill  to    ^'  ^"f^"^?®^ 

x-  r-       r-        D  caused  by  the 

approach  a  river,  there  they    low  land,  and 

have   to    go   up  hill.      The  city      been  overcome 

lies  ten  feet  below  the  level    a.  The  danger 
of   the   river    during    floods.    twZtZ^t 
Broad  banks  of  earth,  called 
levees,  have   therefore  been  built   along 
both  sides  so  as  to  shut  in  its  waters. 


THE  SOUTHERN   STATES 


117 


Why  should  a  river  be  higher  than  the 
land  about  it?  There  are  a  good  many 
such  rivers  in  the  world,  and  the  reason 
is  easy  to  understand.  The  waters  of  the 
Mississippi  coming  from  distant  regions 
are  heavily  charged  with  mud,  which  is 
carried  along  by  the  current.  As  they 
approach  the  sea,  the  current  gradually 


if  the  levees  gave  way.  This  does  some- 
times occur,  especially  in  the  spring  after 
the  snows  have  melted  in  the  North  and 
caused  the  water  to  rise.  Then  hundreds 
of  men  patrol  the  levees  night  and  day  to 
check  the  slightest  leak.  The  smallest 
hole  may  be  the  beginning  of  a  disastrous 
flood. 


Fig.  111.  —  St.  Charles  Avenue,  New  Orleans 
In  what  ways  does  this  street  differ  in  appearance  from  the  streets  in  the  residence  districts  of  Northern  cities? 


slackens,  and  then  some  of  this  mud 
sinks.  In  this  way  the  river  built  up  its 
bed  and  its  banks  on  both  sides,  and  thus 
elevated  its  surface  level  above  the  sur- 
rounding land.  If  the  waters  were  not 
shut  in  by  levees  they  would  spread  out 
over  a  wide  area  and  flood  much  valuable 
farmland.  Much  of  the  land  on  both 
sides  of  the  Mississippi  from  Memphis 
southward  is  lower  than  the  river,  and 
must  be  protected  from  it  by  such  walls. 
You  can  imagine  what  would  happen 


The  land  on  which  the  city  stands  is 
almost  perfectly  flat,  the  highest  portion 
being  a  ridge  hardly  more  than 

p       .    .  ,  .  .  ,,  TT  ^-  '^^^  necessity 

two  feet  in  elevation.     "How  of  drainage  and 
can  such  land  be  drained?",  ^ow  it  is  wo- 

vzded 

you  may  ask.  Also,  "How 
can  people  live  there,  if  it  is  not  well 
drained?  "  The  seriousness  of  these  ques- 
tions is  all  the  greater  when  one  learns 
that  fifty-seven  inches  *of  rain  fall  there 
each  year;  also,  when  one  remembers 
that  every  large  city  produces  a  great 


118 


NORTH   AMERICA 


quantity  of  sewage  that  must  be  carried 
away  by  some  system  of  drainage. 

For  a  long  time  there  were  no  good 
answers  to  these  questions;  and  the  people 
suffered  as  a  result.  The  ground  was  too 
wet  to  allow  cellars  under  the  houses; 
the  sewage  ran  or  stood  in  gutters  and 


Fig. 


©  Charles  L.  Franck 

112.  —  The  water  front  at  New  Orleans 


open  ditches;  and  the  principal  streets 
were  sometimes  flooded  with  several  feet 
of  water.  Of  course  many  kinds  of  sick- 
ness followed;  particularly,  mosquitoes 
so  flourished  that  every  few  years  there 
was  an  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  that 
killed  thousands  of  the  inhabitants. 

At  last  a  solution  of  the  difficulty  was 
found  and  carried  out  at  great  expense. 
« Since  the  sewage  could  not  naturally 
flow  up  into  the  river  to  be  carried  away, 
it  was  pumped  up.  Sewer  pipes  were  laid 
in  the  streets;  these  led  into  cesspools, 
and  pumping  stations  were  established 
for  pumping  the  sewage  from  them  into 
the  river.  The  rain  waters  were  likewise 
pumped  into  a  body  of  water  near  by. 
By  such  means,  the  level  of  water  in  the 


ground  was  lowered,  so  that  cellars  are 
now  possible;  and  there  has  been  no 
epidemic  of  yellow  fever  since  the  mos- 
quitoes were  destroyed  in  1906.  It  re- 
quired great  energy  on  the  part  of  the 
people  to  put  through  such  improve- 
ments; but  the  results  are  wonderful. 

The  city  is  very  different 
from    any    other    in    our 

country,    with        2.  scenes 

its  semi-tropical  *^°"*  *^  "^^ 
climate  and  its  great  vari- 
ety of  inhabitants  and  of 
architecture.  There  is  the 
French  quarter,  where  the 
people  still  speak  French 
as  their  native  tongue,  and 
where  many  old-style  man- 
sions can  be  seen,  with  tiled 
roofs,  iron  railings  on  the 
balconies,  and  flower  gar- 
dens. The  most  common 
trees  are  the  palm,  the  fig, 
the  orange,  and  the  mag- 
nolia; and  even  in  winter  the  air  is  often 
perfumed  with  the  odor  of  violets  and 
roses. 

Probably  the  most  interesting  place  is 
the  harbor.  The  river  is  about  a  half  a 
mile  wide  and  from  forty  to  two  hundred 
feet  deep,  and  vessels  from  all  parts  of  the 
world  dock  there.  The  port  ranks  next 
to  New  York  in  importance  in  our  coun- 
try. As  might  be  expected,  thousands 
of  bales  of  cotton  can  be  seen  on  the  piers, 
for  New  Orleans  is  the  leading  cotton- 
shipping  port  in  the  world.  There  are 
great  quantities  of  sugar  and  rice,  also. 
Why  should  they  be  expected?  Since 
New  Orleans  so  directly  faces  South 
America,  many  of  the  products  of  that 
continent  enter  the  United  States  by  this 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


119 


port.  Much  of  our  coffee  and  bananas 
reaches  us  by  way  of  New  Orleans.  If 
you  could  spend  a  few  days  in  the  city, 
how  do  you  think  you  would  occupy 
your  time? 

There  is  a  striking  difference  between 
the  North  and  the  South  in  the  location  of 

The  difference    ^^i^^  ^^^^^^'      ^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^g" 

between  the  est  in  the  North,  four  are  on 
So'Shi^iVca!  the  Atlantic  coast,  four  on  the 
tion  of  chief  Great  Lakes,  and  two  on  the 
large  rivers.  Every  one  is  on 
some  important  water  route.  See  if  you 
can  name  and  locate  the  ten. 

Of  the  ten  largest  in  the  South,  two, 
New  Orleans  and  Houston,  may  be  count- 
ed as  coast  cities,  although  they  are  some 
distance  inland.  Ocean  vessels  can  read- 
ily reach  them;  three  are  on  rivers,  namely 
Louisville,  which  is  next  to  New  Orleans 
in  size;  Memphis,  on  the  Mississippi 
River;  and  Richmond,  on  the  James 
River;  the  other  five  which  are  At- 
lanta in  Georgia,  Birmingham  in  Ala- 
bama, Nashville  in  Tennessee,  and  Dallas 
and  San  Antonio  in  Texas,  are  upon  no 
important  navigable  waters.  Find  these 
ten  on  Fig.  105.  Water  routes  have 
counted  for  very  much  less  in  the  South 
than  in  the  North  in  the  location  of 
cities;  for,  while  each  of  these  six  cities 
numbers  more  than  100,000  in  popula- 
tion, there  is  but  one  coast  city  between 
Washington  and  New  Orleans  that  reaches 
100,000,  — Norfolk  in  Virginia.  Other 
important  coast  cities  are  Charleston 
in  South  Carolina,  Savannah  in  Georgia, 
Jacksonville  and  Tampa  in  Florida,  and 
Mobile  in  Alabama.    Locate  these  also. 

What  causes  such  a  difference?  It  cer- 
tainly is  not  due  to  lack  of  water  routes  in 
the  South;   for  that  region  has  a  great 


extent  of  navigable  rivers,  and  much 
more  coast  line  than  the  North.  Name 
some  of  the  more  important  rivers. 

The  difference  is  due  chiefly  to  the 
difference  in  the  occupations  of  the  two 
sections.  In  New  York  City  The  meaning 
the  two  leading  occupations  ot  this  differ- 
were  found  (p.  72)  to  be  manu- 
facturing and  transportation;  these  are 
much  more  important  than  agriculture 
in  the  Northeastern  States.  In  the  North 
Central  States  they  rank  about  equally 
with  agriculture,  in  spite  of  the  great 
amount  of  farm  products.  If  we  consider 
the  North  as  a  whole,  that  is,  the  North- 
eastern and  the  North  Central  states 
combined,  we  find  manufacturing  and 
commerce  to  be  considerably  more  im- 
portant than  agriculture. 

It  is  just  the  other  way  in  the  South; 
agriculture  is  by  far  the  most  prominent 
industry.  For  this  reason  few  of  the  chief 
cities  owe  their  growth  to  advantages 
of  transportation  by  water.  Like  In- 
dianapolis (p.  95),  they  have  grown  up  at 
a  distance  from  water  routes,  in  the  midst 
of  rich  farmlands,  and  are  mainly  depend- 
ent on  such  lands  for  their  prosperity. 


1.  Name  and  locate  places  in  the  South 
to  which  Northerners  go  for  the  winter. 
2.  What  are  some  of  the  Review 
attractions  there?  3.  Wliat  questions 
similarity  between  the  North  and  the 
South  does  the  traveler  note  in  crossing 
these  states  to  the  Pacific  coast?  4.  What 
difference  does  he  see  in  the  amount  of 
unused  land?  5.  In  the  extent  of  tobacco 
fields?  6.  In  what  states  does  he  find  cot- 
ton, and  how  prominent  is  it  among  farm 
crops?  7.  Locate  two  other  farm  products 
not  grown  in  the  North,  and  tell  some- 


120 


NORTH   AMERICA 


thing  about  their  appearance.  8.  What 
difference  is  there  in  the  character  of  the 
population?  9.  In  the  number  of  large 
cities?  10.  Tell  about  a  fourth  important 
advantage  of  the  South  over  the  North  in 
agriculture.  11.  Explain  the  advantage 
of  the  South  in  raising  small  fruits  and 
vegetables.  12.  Compare  the  small 
Southern  farm  with  the  one  in  Ohio.  13. 
Compare  the  plantation  with  the  Ohio 
farm.  14.  State  some  facts  about  life  in 
the  hilly  and  mountainous  section  of  the 
South.  15.  How  did  King  Cotton  get 
his  name?  16.  Why  has  he  established  his 
kingdom  in  the  South?  17.  What  de- 
mands does  he  make  upon  his  subjects? 
18.  How  does  he  influence  transportation 
and  manufacturing  in  the  South?  19. 
Compare  the  manufacturing  about  Bir- 
mingham with  that  about  Pittsburgh. 
20.  Make  a  further  comparison  of  the 
South  with  the  North  in  advantages  for 
manufacturing.  21.  How  is  the  South 
repeating  the  experience  of  the  North 
Central  States  in  the  treatment  of  its 
forests?  22.  What  kinds  of  trees  grow 
in  the  South?  23.  Explain  the  danger  of 
floods  in  New  Orleans  and  how  it  is  met. 
24.  Show  the  special  need  of  drainage 
there  and  how  it  is  provided.  25.  De- 
scribe scenes  about  that  city.  26.  How 
does  the  South  differ  from  the  North  in 
the  location  of  its  large  cities?  27.  Ex- 
plain the  reasons  for  this  difference. 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  advertisements 
of  winter  resorts  in  the  South.  2.  Make 
Suggestions  ^  coUcction  of  articles  manu- 
for  extra         factured  from  cotton.  3.  Grow 

work  ,  ■  1 

some  cotton  and  some  rice 
plants  in  the  schoolroom.  4.  Write  the 
life  story  of  a  bit  of  cotton,  from  the  time 
it  is  picked  in  the  field  until  it  becomes  a 


part  of  a  garment  or  of  a  sheet  of  letter 
paper.  5.  Mention  other  advantages  of 
the  Southern  climate;  for  example,  in 
regard  to  houses  and  clothing.  6.  In  what 
ways  are  mosquitoes  destroyed?  7.  Make 
a  drawing  to  show  the  plan  for  carrying 
off  sewage  in  the  town  where  you  Uve  or 
trade.  8.  Write  a  story  describing  the 
damage  done  by  a  break  in  a  levee  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  9.  If  an  exposition 
were  held  in  New  Orleans  showing  the 
products  of  the  South,  what  things 
should  be  exhibited?  See  to  what  extent 
you  could  prepare  such  an  exhibit.  10. 
Trace  the  shortest  route  by  water  from 
New  Orleans  to  Chile,  in  South  America ; 
to  China.  11.  King  Cotton  has  many 
enemies.  Find  out  what  some  of  them 
are,  and  how  they  are  fought.  12.  Here 
is  a  question  for  debate:  Resolved,  that 
the  world  would  be  better  off  if  the  to- 
bacco plant  had  never  been  discovered. 
13.  Spell  the  names  of  the  Southern 
States,  and  write  the  abbreviations  for 
them.  14.  Make  an  outline  drawing  of 
these  states,  and  put  in  the  principal 
ri^^ers,  mountains,  and  cities. 

V.     The  Western  States 

It  is  a  surprise  to  many  people  to 
discover  that  after  traveling  all  the 
way  from  New  York  to  Chi-  The  great  dis- 
cago  they  have  gone  less  tances  in  the 
than  one  third  of  the  dis-  ®^* 
tance  across  the  continent.  They  must 
continue  the  journey  100  miles  beyond 
Omaha,  in  Nebraska,  before  they  have 
gone  half  way  to  San  Francisco. 

The  West  (Fig.  121)  covers  a  vast 
area.  CaUfornia  is  nearly  as  long  as  the 
distance  from  New  Orleans  to  Chicago, 


THE  WESTERN   STATES 


121 


Why  people 
formerly  hesi 
tated  to  mi- 
grate to  this 
section 


and  Montana  is  longer  than  that  from 
Buffalo  to  Chicago.  The  smallest  state 
in  this  group  is  larger  than  the  largest 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  the 
average  area  of  these  states  is  more 
than  twice  that  of  New  York.  Prove 
that  these  statements  are  true  (p.  311). 

In  most  of  the  states  thus 
far  studied,  the  rainfall  va- 
ries from  thirty 
to  sixty  inches 
per  year.  When 
some  of  their 
inhabitants 
moved  a  few  hundred  miles 
west  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  they  discovered  that 
they  could  not  raise  their 
old  crops.  While  at  least 
thirty  inches  are  required 
for  agriculture  as  they  had 
been  accustomed  to  carry  it 
on,  less  than  twenty  inches 
fall  in  much  of  this  new 
territory.  How  much  of 
this  area  suffers  from  lack 
of  rain  you  can  tell  from 
Fig.  146.  Of  the  eleven 
states  in  this  group,  how 
many  have  extensive  areas 
that  receive  less  than 
twenty  inches?  Answer  this  question 
by  comparing  Fig.  121  with  Fig.  146. 
What  portion  of  the  whole  area  do  you 
estimate  this  to  be?  Which  states  have 
large  sections  whose  rainfall  is  less  than 
ten  inches? 

Owing  to  lack  of  rain,  the  entire  east- 
ern and  central  portion  of  this  group 
of  states  came  to  be  called  the  Great 
American  Desert,  although  it  was  often 
uncertain  just  what  regions  the  people 


who  used  the  name  had  in  mind.  Seeing 
that  the  old-style  farming  was  not  suc- 
cessful here,  many  people  rashly  con- 
cluded that  the  entire  West  was  of 
little  value. 

In  the  year  1848,  however,  gold  was 
discovered  in  the  stream  beds  of  Cali- 


lifornia  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange 

Fig.  113.  —  Oranges  and  snow  in  southern  California 

California  is  a  land  of  contrasts.  Its  southeastern  portion  is  the  hottest 
in  the  United  States;  its  mountain  tops  are  covered  with  snow  all  the  year 
round.  It  contains  the  lowest  and  the  highest  land  in  any  of  our  states ;  the 
driest  regions,  and  some  of  the  wettest;  some  of  the  most  productive,  and 
some  of  the  most  desolate. 


fornia.  By  scooping  up  some  of  the 
sand,  gravel,  and  water  in  a  pan,  shak- 
ing the  mixture,  and 
pouring   off   the  water 


then 
care- 


Why  people 
migrated  to 
„  -  ,  California,  and 

fully,    bits    OI    gold    and    even   different  ways 

good-sized  lumps,  or  nuggets,  in. which  the 

°  .  va       7    ^jp  ^^g  made 

might  be  found  at  the  bot- 

.  .  ,  •  1       1.  Effect  of  the 

tom.    A  man  sometimes  made  discovery  of  gold 
hundreds  of  dollars  in  one  day  ^  California 
in  this  way.    The  discovery  of  gold  on  the 
Pacific  coast  produced  great  excitement; 


122 


NORTH   AMERICA 


and  as  this  method  of  mining,  called 
panning,  was  so  simple  that  almost  any- 
one could  provide  himself  with  a  gold- 
mining  outfit,  thousands  of  people  started 
for  California. 


Fig.  114.— The  Overland  Limited  on  the  "cut-off" 
across  Great  Salt  Lake 

The  best  train  on  the  Union  Pacific-Southern  Pacific 
route  is  here  seen  crossing  the  longest  bridge  in  the 
world.  Locate  it  on  Fig.  121.  The  shallow  water  made 
such  a  bridge  possible.  What  advantage,  do  you  suppose, 
was  gained  by  its  construction? 

How  should  they  go?  From  our 
Northeastern   States   and   from   Europe 

2.  Early  ways  of  ^^^^^  ^ere  three  main  routes: 
reaching  cau-  ons  was  by  boat  around 
South  America;  the  second 
was  by  boat  to  Panama,  then  across 
the  Isthmus  and  again  by  boat;  the 
third'  was  across  the  "Great  American 
Desert."  Trace  these  routes.  Which 
do  you  think  you  would  have  chosen? 
The  third  is  the  one  that  concerns  us. 
Many  men  took  their  families  by  the 
Overland  Trail,  which  was  very  nearly 
the  same  as  that  taken  by  the  Union 
Pacific  Railroad  a  few  years  later  (Fig. 
150).  Large  numbers  traveled  together, 
first  providing  themselves  with  covered 
wagons  drawn  by  horses  or  oxen  and 
with  quantities  of  food  and  other  neces- 
saries,   including   weapons   for   defense. 


Although  people  had  gone  overland  to 
the  Pacific  before  the  gold  rush,  the  way 
was  poorly  marked;  there  was  danger 
of  death  from  thirst;  and  savage  Indi- 
ans might  attack  them  at  any  time. 
Does  Fig.  121  suggest  other  difficulties 
and  dangers  that  had  to  be  met?  Many 
persons  perished  on  the  way;  but  so  many 
reached  the  coast  by  some  route  that  in 
1850  California  had  become  important 
enough  to  enter  the  Union  as  a  state. 

As  the  population  of  the  state  in- 
creased, mail  between  the  East  and 
the  West  had  to  be  sent  back  and  forth 
in  the  quickest  possible  time.  One 
of  the  means  employed  for  this  purpose 
was  the  Pony  Express.  Starting  from 
St.  Joseph,  in  Missouri,  the  end  of  the 
railroad  at  that  time,  and  following  the 
Overland  Trail  most  of  the  way,  it 
carried  mail  through  the  places  now 
called  Laramie,  Pocatello,  and  Sacra- 
mento to  San  Francisco  in  eight  days. 
Locate  these  cities.  This  was  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  the  best  horses  in 
the  country,  traveling  at  top  speed.  It 
was  a  relay  race  for  1,400  miles. 

One  can  imagine  that  it  was  expensive 
to  send  mail  in  this  way.  The  price 
was  at  first  five  dollars,  and  later  two 
dollars  and  fifty  cents,  for  a  letter. 
What  does  it  cost  now? 

Such  struggles  to  cross  the  Great  West 
help  us  to  realize  the  joy  with  which 
people  welcomed  the  first  railroad  cross- 
ing the  entire  distance.  It  was  com- 
pleted in  1869. 

This  railroad,  called  the  Union  Pacif- 
ic as  far  as  Ogden,  in  Utah,  and  the 
Southern  Pacific  between  Ogden  and  San 
Francisco,  really  begins  at  Council  Bluffs 
in  Iowa,  just  across  the  Missouri  River 


THE   WESTERN   STATES 


123 


from  Omaha,  although  the  trains  start 
from  Chicago.  Beginning  the  journey  at 
Omaha,  one  travels  the  length 


What  one  can 

see  along  the    of  Nebraska  over  very  level 

Union  Pacific 
Railroad  to- 
day 


1.   The  moun- 
tains and  pla- 
teaus that 
have  to  be 
cUmbed 


country,  called  the  Great 
Plains  (p.  96).  In  every  di- 
rection one  can  see  for  many 
miles;  for  there  are  no  hills  or 
forests.  The  Great  Plains  ex- 
tend into  the  eastern  border 
of  the  Western  States,  Wyoming  being 
the  first  of  the  Western  States  reached 
in  our  journey.  Although  the  plains 
seem  almost  perfectly  level,  the  train  is 
cHmbing  all  the  time.  At  Omaha  it  was 
1,000  feet  above  sea  level;  but  at  Chey- 
enne it  is  more  than  6,000  feet  above. 
It  has  climbed  one  mile  in  that  distance 
and  is  now  as  high  as  the  peak  of  Mount 
Washington,  in  New  Hampshire.  Fig. 
62  shows  the  long  upward  slope.  Note 
the  gradual  rise  from  the  Mississippi  River. 
At  Cheyenne  the  train  is  at  the  foot 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  in  the  next 
thirty  miles  it  must  climb  2,000  feet 
more  in  order  to  cross  them.  At  the 
highest  point  some  of  the  passengers 
have  difficulty  in  breathing,  for  at  this 
altitude,  8,000  feet,  the  air  is  much 
rarer  than  at  sea  level. 

In  Wyoming  one  crosses  the  conti- 
nental divide  of  North  America  (Fig.  61). 
Some  of  the  rain  that  falls  here  reaches 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  some  the  Pacific. 
In  Fig.  121  note  how  many  rivers  rise 
among  these  mountains,  and  trace  them 
to  the  ocean. 

Through  Wyoming  the  railroad  crosses 
a  plateau  more  than  a  mile  above  sea 
level.  Shortly  before  reaching  Ogden, 
it  crosses  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  in 
Utah  (Fig.  115). 


Again,  after  leaving  Ogden,  one  trav- 
els for  nearly  500  miles  over  a  plateau 
as  far  as  the  eastern  boundary  of  Cali- 
fornia. Then  the  Sierra  Nevada  is 
crossed  at  an  elevation  of  about  7,000 
feet.  After  that  the  road  runs  down  hill 
to  Oakland,  where  ferries  take  one  across 
San  Francisco  Bay  to  the  city  of  that 
name. 

Much  of  this  country  looks  now  as 
it  did  when  the  pioneers  of  1849  traveled 
over    it.       Trees     are     seen 
mainly  along  the  streams  and  astheToneers 
in   the  mountains;    in   some  ofi849sawin 

following  this 

sections   there   are   scattered  route 

bunches   of   grass,    and   over 

wide    areas    there    are    sagebrush    and 


©Keystone  View  Co., Inc. 

Fig.  115.— Wasatch  Mountains  from  Ogden  in  Utah 
Except  at  the  very  end  of  the  summer,  these  mountains 
are  covered  with  snow.  For  many  miles  the  railroad 
follows  the  course  of  a  stream  through  a  deep  gorge  be- 
tween lofty  ranges.  The  green  alfalfa  and  poplar  trees 
rest  the  eye  of  the  traveler  after  many  miles  of  desert. 


124 


NORTH   AMERICA 


©Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Fig.  116.  — The  Sierra  Nevada 
This  view  is  taken  from  a  point  near  the  pass  where  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad   crosses  the  range.     The  snowy  Sierra  is  a  region  of   beautiful 
mountain  landscapes,  but  there  are  a  few  abrupt  slopes. 


cactus.  For  long  stretches  there  is 
very  Httle  vegetation  of  any  kind.  In 
the  driest  regions,  one  sees  Httle  beside 
bare,  sandy  soil,  rocky  ledges,  and 
mountains. 

On  crossing  the  Sierra  Nevada  into 
California,  however,  the 
scene  changes.  There  one 
comes  into  a  region  of 
abundant  rainfall,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  146,  and  the  veg- 
etation suddenly  becomes 
luxuriant.  The  western 
slope  of  the  mountains  is 
covered  with  magnificent 
forests.  The  rest  of  the 
journey  (p.  132)  is  through 
the  fertile  Valley  of  Cali- 
fornia to  the  prosperous 
cities  on  San  Francisco  Bay. 

The  railroad  follows  the 
straightest  possible  route, 
and  keeps  to  the  passes 
between  the  peaks.  The 
high  points  that  are 
reached,  however,  and  the 


remarkably  clear  air  allow 
views  of  places  scores  of 
miles  away.  From  the 
highest  point  on  the  rail- 
road in  Wyoming  one  can 
sometimes  see  Pike's  Peak 
in  Colorado  (Fig.  117). 
Measure  this  distance  on 
Fig.  121. 

Yet  the  scenes  along  this 
route  are  not  all  just  as  they 
used  to  be;  for 
two  important 
changes  have 
taken  place  in 
the  vegetation  and  the  life 
dependent  upon  it.  The  traveler  now 
comes  to  many  thriving  towns  and 
villages  surrounded  by  orchards  and  gar- 
dens, with  rich  fields  of  alfalfa,  grazing 
cattle  and  sheep,  and  prosperous  homes 
near  by.    More  productive  districts  than 

1 


3.    Two  impor- 
tant changes  in 
the  vegetation 
since  1849 


(c)  Ewing  (Jailoway 

Fig.  117.— Kke's  Peak  from  the  "Garden  of  the  Gods"  in  Colorado 
Unlike  the  great  volcanic  peaks  of  the  Pacific  coast  states,  the  mountains 
of  Colorado  rise  from  a  high  plateau,  and  do  not,  therefore,  appear  so  high  as 
the  elevation  given  on  the  map  suggests. 


THE  WESTERN  STATES 


125 


these  are  seen  scarcely  any- 
where in  either  the  East 
or  the  South.  Again,  far 
distant  from  any  village, 
one  sees  now  and  then  a 
farmhouse  with  a  large 
barn  near  it,  stacks  of  hay 
in  the  fields,  and,  in  the 
growing  season,  thriving 
crops  of  wheat  or  kafir  corn 
and  alfalfa.  The  farms  are 
far  apart,  yet  the  total 
number  is  large. 

Then  one  asks  this  ques- 
tion: Can  it  be  that  man  is 
changing  the  cHmate  of  this 
region,  and  that  the  ''Great 
American  Desert"  is  disap- 
pearing? Certainly  a  region  that  was 
formerly  thought  to  have  little  value  now 
has  thousands  of  excellent  farms,  and  is 
supporting  tens  of  thousands  of  people. 
How  has  such  a  change  come  about? 

Denver,   in   Colorado,   is   one   of  the 

largest  cities  in  the  arid  region;  but  it 

has    not   been    built    up    by 

4.  Why  Denver  .  o 

has  grown  up      changing  the   chmate.     iSev- 

where  it  is  i      j  i  •  i  j     'j. 

eral  things  have  caused  its 
growth,  probably  the  most  important 
being  the  use  of  water  from  a  neighboring 
river. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  west  of  the 
city  are  lofty  enough  to  receive  consider- 
able rain  and  therefore  to  be 
the  source  of  many  important 
streams,  as  can  be  seen  on 
Fig.  121.  One  of  these, 
the  South  Platte,  flows  past 
Denver.  A  ditch  or  canal  leads  water 
from  it  out  over  the  arid  plain  near  the 
city,  and  smaller  ditches  run  out  from  the 
large  one.     The  river  itself  has  a  rapid 


Fig.  118.  —  A  sheep  ranch  in  Colorado 

Sheep  flourish  in  places  where  the  grass  is  very  scanty, 
pect  cattle  to  thrive  here?  jf^ 


©  Exving  QaUoway 


Would  you  ex- 


a.  How  water 
is  distributed 
over  the  land, 
and  the  changes 
it  has  made 


fall;  but  just  enough  slope  has  been 
given  to  the  ditch  to  cause  the  water 
to  flow  gently.  Thus  the  ditch,  follow- 
ing the  direction  of  the  river,  soon  runs 
on  a  higher  level  than  the  river  does, 
and  the  smaller  ditches  can  carry  water 
to  many  fields  along  its  course.  When 
a  field  needs  water  for  the  growth  of 
crops,  one  of  the  smaller  ditches  leading 
directly  to  it  is  tapped,  and  the  land  is 
flooded;  or  the  water  is  allowed  to  run 
across  it  in  furrows  that  are  a  few  feet 
apart.  The  method  followed  depends 
upon  the  kind  of  crop  under  cultivation. 
Such  a  plan  for  watering  is  called  irri- 
gation. 

As  there  is  danger  that  the  supply  of 
water  may  not  last  through  the  season, 
reservoirs  are  built  to  store  the  water  of 
the  spring  freshets,  which  is  let  into  the 
ditches  and  on  to  the  land  later  as  it  is 
needed. 

Such  an  arrangement  is,  of  course,  ex- 
pensive, and  each  farmer  pays  for  thp 


126 


NORTH  AMERICA 


water  he  uses,  just  as  in  a  city  one  pays 
for  the  water  used  in  one's  house.  But 
the  farmers  can  afford  to  pay  a  good 
price;  for  on  the  upper  side  of  the  ditch, 
which  is  too  high  to  be  reached  by  the 
water,  the  land  is  fit  only  for  grazing. 


(Q  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  119. — 'The  mint  and  the  state  capitol,  Denver 
Which  building  is  the  capitol?     Many  state  capitols  have  domes,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  capitol  at  Washington  (Fig.  77).     In  this  mint  much  of  our 
money  is  coined. 

(Fig.  118)  and  worth  only  a  few  dollars 
per  acre  at  best;  while  on  the  lower  side 
there  are  rich  fields  of  grain,  vegetables, 
and  alfalfa,  where  an  acre  may  be  worth 
several  hundred  dollars. 

With    such    an    abundance    of    farm 
products  near  Denver,  other  industries 

were  easily  developed.   In  the 

mountains    are    many    kinds 

of  minerals.      Gold  is  mined 

at  Cripple  Creek,  and  Lead- 

ville  is  a  center  for  gold, 
silver,  and  lead.  Without  the  food  from 
the  irrigated  district  about  Denver  and 


b.  Other  occu- 
pations made 
profitable  by 
these  farm 
products 


other    districts    like    it,    mining    would 

have  been  much  more  difficult  and  costly 

at  these  points. 

Naturally,    other    industries    followed 

farming  and  mining.    The  ores  containing 

the  metals  had  to  be  broken  up  and 
melted  or  treated  with 
chemicals,  in  order  that  the 
metals  might  be  extracted, 
or  refined;  wheat  had  to 
be  ground  into  flour;  cattle 
and  sheep  had  to  be  slaugh- 
tered for  meat  and  hides; 
and  many  kinds  of  machin- 
ery and  other  articles  had 
to  be  manufactured.  Much 
of  this  work  was  done  in 
Denver.  As  the  city  grew, 
it  came  to  be  a  center  for 
trade  and  manufacturing 
for  the  surrounding  district. 
When  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad  was  built,  Denver 
was  too  small  a  town  to  in- 
fluence the  route  chosen ;  but 
now  it  is  one  of  the  large 
cities  in  the  West  (Fig.  119), 
and  a  great  railway  center. 
Salt  Lake  City,  like  Denver,  was  too 

small  to  be  included  on  the  route  of  the 

Union   Pacific   when   it 

planned.      The    land 


^^^     5.   Reasons  for 
about     *e  ^owth  of 
Salt  take  City 

it  used  to  be  even  drier  than 
the  plain  about  Denver.  But  a  reUgious 
sect  known  as  the  Mormons  moved 
there  at  about  the  time  gold  was  dis- 
covered in  California  and  began  irri- 
gating the  level  tract  southeast  of  Great 
Salt  Lake.  There  are  now  thousands 
of  acres  in  this  vicinity  that  are  as  pro- 
ductive as  any  land  in  the  United  States. 
The    principal    crops    are    grain,    fruit. 


THE   WESTERN   STATES 


127 


sugar    beets,    and    alfalfa;     and    stock 
raising  is  extensive. 

The  surrounding  mountains  are  rich 
in  metals,  particularly  copper.  Smelting 
has,  therefore,  become  an  important 
industry.  Other  kinds  of  manufactur- 
ing have  developed,  as  in  Denver,  and 
the  city  has  become  an  important  center 
for  trade. 

Great  Salt  Lake  lies  a  few  miles  north- 
west of  the  city.  Although  many  moun- 
tain streams  pour  their  waters  into  the 
lake,  there  is  so  much  evaporation, 
owing  to  the  dry  air,  that  it  never  over- 
flows. It  has,  therefore,  grown  more 
and  more  salty,  until  it  is  several  times 
as  salty  as  the  ocean.  Even  one  who 
cannot  swim  floats  upon  it  readily  because 
the  water  is  so  dense  with  salt.  Bathing 
in  its  waters  is,  therefore,  a  very  popu- 
lar sport  (Fig.  120).  No  fish  can  live 
there,  however.    Can  you  suggest  why? 

There    are    many    other 
irrigated  districts  along  the 

6.  How  farming    rOUte     of     this 

srbi':Srur  railway.     But 
irrigation  j^qw  is  farming 

possible  in  so  many  other 
places  also? 

Mr.  Grant's  farm  in  east- 
ern Colorado  will  serve 
as  an  example  to  answer 
the  question.  It 

o.  The  appear- 
ance of  IS    square    in 

Mr.GranCs  gj^^  ^^^    ^^^_ 

dry  farm  ^ 

tains  640  acres. 
How  long  would  a  fence  be 
that  enclosed  it?  It  is  al- 
most as  level  as  a  floor, 
and  every  foot  of  it  can 
be  plowed  except  one  cor- 
ner where  a  brook  runs. 


He  came  here  in  the  'eighties.  His  first 
buildings  were  of  sod.  When  the  tough 
prairie  grass  was  first  plowed  up,  the 
sod  was  turned  over  in  unbroken  strips 
sometimes  a  mile  long.  These  strips 
were  cut  up  into  sections  and  laid  in 
courses,  like  brick,  to  form  walls.  The 
roof  was  made  of  heavy  plank  with  a 
little  slope,  and  covered  with  earth  and 
gravel  a  foot  deep.  The  better  sod 
houses  have  glass  windows  and  wooden 
floors;  Mr.  Grant's  house  was  of  that 
sort.  It  was  very  comfortable,  too,  in 
many  ways,  being  warm  in  winter  and 
cool  in  summer.  What  objections  do 
you  see  to  such  a  home?  Mr.  Grant's 
buildings  are  now  all  of  wood. 

Water,  of  course,  was  necessary  for 
the  family  and  the  animals,  and  very  de- 
sirable for  a  garden.  This  was  obtained 
from  wells  by  means  of  windmills;  the 
wind  blows  almost  constantly  on  these 


9im&3 


lerials  Co. 


Fig.  120.  — Saltair  beach,  near  Salt  Lake  City 
For  a  long  distance  out  into  the  lake  the  water  is  very  shallow. 


130 


NORTH   AMERICA 


plains,  sometimes  very  hard  for  days 
at  a  time.  Near  the  creek  below  the 
house  are  two  windmills  that  supply 
water  for  the  house  and  garden;  these 
are  running  most  of  the  time.  They 
pump  water  into  tanks,  which  are  filled 
every    night    in    the    dry    season;     and 


that  he  must  choose  only  such  crops  as 
were  suited  to  a  dry  climate;  and  that 
he  must  cultivate  the  soil  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prevent  its  moisture  from  escaping. 
So  he  left  about  half  of  the  farm  in 
native  prairie  grass,  which  forms  thick 
clumps  or  bunches  over  the  ground,  but 


Courtesy  of  Moline  Universal  Tractor  Co. 


Fig.  122.    -Cutting  wheat  on  Mr.  Grant's  farm 
The  machine  used  here  is  called  a  binder.     It  cuts  the  grain  and  ties  it  into  sheaves  which  it  leaves  behind  in 


the  field. 

enough  is  let  out  into  the  garden  to 
raise  an  abundance  of  potatoes,  vege- 
tables, and  small  fruit.  There  are  flowers, 
also,  about  the  house,  and  a  few  shade 
trees. 

The  brook  contains  too  little  water  to 
irrigate  the  fields,  and  there  is  no  larger 
h.  The  crops  Stream  near.  After  many 
that  are  cfwsen  failures  Mr.  Grant  learned 
that  he  could  not  farm  by  the  methods 
he  had  used  in  Illinois.  After  much 
experimenting  he  found  out  three  things: 
that  he  could  raise  a  good  many  cattle; 


never  grows  more  than  a  few  inches  high. 
During  the  hot  summer  it  dries  up  and 
forms  natural  hay  that  is  very  nourish- 
ing. Cattle  can  live  on  it  all  winter, 
if  necessary.  Mr.  Grant  sells  some  beef 
cattle  every  year,  and  keeps  a  fine  herd 
of  dairy  cows. 

Some  of  his  crops  are  for  cattle  feed. 
The  principal  crop  is  sorghum,  which 
looks  much  like  corn.  It  will  live 
through  very  dry  weather  and  thrives 
where  there  is  but  little  moisture.  There 
is  some   kafir  corn,    some  barley,  and  a 


THE   WESTERN   STATES 


131 


strip  of  alfalfa  along  the  creek.  The 
water  there  spreads  out  a  long  distance 
through  the  ground,  and  the  roots  of 
the  alfalfa  get  the  benefit  even  if  the 
moisture  is  as  much  as  twenty  feet  be- 
low the  surface.  This  is  one  of  the  rea- 
sons why  alfalfa  is  well  suited  to  a  dry 
country.  It  remains  green  through  the 
driest  of  weather  and  in  that  condition 
is  especially  good  for  hogs.  As  hay  it  is 
equal  to  the  finest  clover  in  the  East. 

All  these  crops,  together  with  the 
prairie  grass,  are  sufficient  to  feed  the 
stock  and,  as  most  of  the  cream  is  sold, 
there  is  some  income  every  month. 

Chickens  and  turkeys  also  bring  in 
considerable  money.  They  thrive  in 
the  dry  climate,  and  require  very  little 
feeding  in  addition  to  the  insects  and 
seeds  they  find.  Enough  money  comes 
from  these  sources  and  from  the  sale 
of  beef  cattle  during  the  year  to  support 
the  family. 

Mr.   Grant  sows  about   100  acres  of 
wheat    every    year.      This    crop    brings 
him  his  chief  income.     It  is  well  suited 
to  this  climate,  because  it 
can  get  a  good  start  early 
in  the  season  when   most 
rain   falls,   and   needs   but 
little  moisture  as  it  ripens. 

It  has  taken  a  long  time 
to  iearn  how  to  cultivate 
these  crops  in  such  a  way 
that  most  of  the  moisture 
will  remain  in  the  ground. 
The  chief  thing  to  do  is  to 
keep  a  layer  of  fine,  loose 
dirt  on  the  top.  Moisture 
from  below  does  not  easily 
work  its  way  through  such 
a  layer  to  the  air,  and  rain  This 


sinks    quickly  into   the   soil   instead   of 
running  away. 

Thus,  in  his  selection  of  crops  and  in 
his  care  of  the  soil,  Mr.  Grant  has  adapted 
himself  to  the  dry  country.  In  distinc- 
tion from  farming  in  regions  of  abundant 
rainfall,  or  in  arid  regions  by  irrigation, 
this  is  called  dry  farming. 

Thousands  of  farmers  throughout  the 
semi-arid    regions  of  the  West,   all   the 
way  from  eastern  Washington 
to  New  Mexico,  are  now  living  ness  of  such  a 
a  life  somewhat  like  this.    It  ^'^^  «^  '""^  "^ 

.  tYs  pleasures 

is  lonely,  we  must  admit,  for 
homes  in  such  a  country  must  be  far 
apart.  The  nearest  neighbors  to  Mr. 
Grant  are  more  than  a  mile  away;  and 
the  nearest  town,  which  is  only  a  village 
of  500  inhabitants,  is  five  miles  distant. 
Yet  there  are  many  pleasures.  Perhaps 
the  greatest  is  the  freedom  that  Mr. 
Grant  and  his  family  feel.  They  work 
for  themselves,  and  can  come  and  go  as 
they  please. 

On  the  journey  along  the  Overland 
Route   one  passes   through    remarkably 


('ourte!<i/  of  U.  S. .Reclamation  Service 

Fig.  123.  — Sagebrush 
is  how  the  desert  looks  before  it  is  irrigated. 


132 


NORTH   AMERICA 


few  cities.  Name  some  of  the  largest 
towns  (Fig.  121),  and  look  up  their  pop- 
Someofthe  ulations  (p.  311) .  Hour  after 
hour,  between  stations,  one 
sees  from  the  train  such 
dry  farms  as  that  of  Mr. 
Grant,  or  arid  land  bearing 
only  sagebrush  (Fig.  123). 
Then  one  wonders  how  a  railroad  run- 
ning through  such  a  country   can   pay 


attractions  of 
San  Francisco 
and  surround- 
ing country 

1.  Products  of 
the  VaUey  of 
California 


Courtesy  of  California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange 

Fig.  124. — Wrapping  California  oranges 
The  citrus  fruit  industry  gives  employment  to  many  persons  besides  those 
who  grow  the  fruit.    These  oranges  will  be  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars  by 
fast  freight. 

expenses;  and  why  there  are  so  many 
long,  heavily  laden  passenger  and  freight 
trains  passing  each  way  every  day  over 
that  dreary  stretch. 

This  question  is  answered  when  one 
crosses  the  Sierra  Nevada  into  Cali- 
fornia and  approaches  San  Francisco; 
for  the  Valley  of  California  is  one  of  the 
most  productive  parts  of  the  earth. 
Fig.  146  shows  that  the  rainfall  is  heavy 
in  northern  California  and  on  the  west- 
ern slopes  of  the  Sierra,    but  Kght  over 


most  of  this  valley.    The  many  streams, 
however,  make  irrigation  possible. 

Most  of  the  products  grown  else- 
where in  the  United  States  are  found 
here.  Apples,  oranges,  peaches,  pears, 
plums,  cherries,  and  figs  are  abundant, 
and  more  grapes  are  raised  than  along 
the  southern  shores  of  Lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario  (p.  81).  Nearly  all  the  raisins 
eaten  in  the  United  States  come  from 
this  valley.  There  are  many 
large  fields  of  grain — wheat, 
oats,  rye,  and  barley;  po- 
tatoes and  sugar  beets  are 
common,  and  rice  is  culti- 
vated extensively.  Alfalfa 
is  one  of  the  leading  crops, 
and  there  are  large  num- 
bers of  cattle  and  sheep. 
The  valley  is  an  admirable 
place  for  truck  gardening, 
and  is  one  of  our  most  im- 
portant centers  for  poultry. 
Estimate  the  length  and 
average  width  of  the  valley 
as  shown  on  Fig.  121. 

The  train  reaches  the  end 
of  the  railway  at  Oakland. 
There    a    ferry 


2.  Excellence  of 
takes  passengers    San  Francisco 

across  the  bay  to  San  Fran- 
cisco. This  bay  is  the  harbor,  one  of  the 
largest  and  finest  in  the  world.  It  is 
about  fifty  miles  long  and  from  five  to 
ten  miles  wide.  It  is  said  that  one  of  the 
first  Spaniards  who  explored  the  Pacific 
coast  reported  that  this  harbor  was  so 
large  that  all  of  the  navies  of  Spain  could 
play  hide  and  seek  in  it.  The  entrance 
to  this  harbor,  called  the  Golden  Gate, 
is  one  of  our  few  important  gateways 
to  the  lands  across  the  Pacific. 


THE  WESTERN  STATES 


133 


3.  Facts  of  in 
terest  about 
the  city 


Many  cities  and  towns  are  located 
around  the  bay.  Name  some  of  them, 
and  find  their  populations 
(p.  311).  San  Francisco  (Fig. 
125)  is  the  largest,  and  has  a 
very  striking  location.  Note  in  Fig.  121 
how  nearly  it  is  surrounded  by  water. 
There  are  many  high  hills  in  the  city,  for 
the  Coast  Ranges  almost  entirely  sur- 
round the  bay. 

Among  the  leading  industries  in  the 
city  are  the  refining  of  sugar  and  meat 
packing.  The  raw  sugar  is  brought  from 
the  Hawaiian  Islands  (p.  147). 

Many  people  of  foreign  birth  live  in 
the  city,  as  in  the  large  cities  of  the 
East;  but  there  is  an  especially  large 
Chinese  section,  called  Chinatown. 
Scarcely  any  white  people  dwell  in  this 
section,  and  the  customs  of  the  people 
are  much  the  same  as  in  China  itself. 
Why  should  so  large  a  number  of  Chi- 
nese  have   collected   here? 


One  who  has  made  the  journey  across 
the  Western  States  to  San  Francisco  has 
seen  what  a  vast  arid  waste 
it    still    is    in    many    places,  no°i^emroute 
but  how   irrigation  and   dry  across  these 

p  •  ,  ,  1  1  states  com- 

farming  together  are  chang-  pares  with  the 

ing    it.       He    has    noted    how   central  route 

they  have   made   it   possible  i.  Points  of 
to  develop  extensive  mining,  SfSeSion 
manufacturing,  and   trade, 
and  how  many  towns  and   cities    have 
grown  up  as  a  result.     There  are  now 
eight    great    railroads    that    completely 
cross    the    Western    States;    since   they 
cross  many  states  to  the  east  also,  they 
are     commonly     called    transcontinental 
lines.     Some  cross  the  northern  states  of 
this  group,  others  the  middle  states,  and 
still  others  the  southern.  Which  of  these 
have  we  already  discussed? 

There  are  three  different  railways  that 
can  be  taken  on  the  northern  route,  all 
of  them  branching  out  from  St.  Paul  and 


?m' 


©  R.  I.  Water  &  Co. 

Fig.  125.  —  San  Francisco  harbor 
You  are  here  looking  toward  the  northeast  over  San  Francisco  bay.    At  the  extreme  right  is  an  island  half  way 
between  San  Francisco  and  Oakland.    At  the  extreme  left  is  the  entrance  to  the  Golden  Gate. 


134 


NORTH   AMERICA 


all  reaching  the  Pacific  coast  by  way  of 
Spokane  (Fig.  121).  One  of  these,  the 
Northern  Pacific,  runs  through  Billings, 
Butte,  and  Spokane  to  Seattle.  Trace 
its  course  in  Fig.  150  and  note  the  states 
that  it  crosses.  Trace  also  two  other 
routes  that  parallel  it  closely. 


2.  Attractions 
of  Yellowstone 
National  Park 


.     /,,/,■,,,/  InblislaiKj  Co. 

Fig.  126. —  One  of  the  few  buffalo  herds  left  in  our  country 

At  one  time  buffalo  were  numerous  over  most  of  the  vast  area  between 
the  Appalachian  Highland  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  Great  Plains, 
because  of  their  vast  extent  of  grasslands,  were  once  the  home  of  millions 
of  them.  Many  thousand  Indians  depended  on  these  buffalo  to  a  great  ex- 
tent for  their  living.  White  men  slaughtered  most  of  them  for  their  hides 
or  for  the  pleasure  of  killing.  In  1920  there  were  about  3,400  buffalo  in  the 
United  States  and  5,000  in  Canada. 

By  examining  Fig.  146  you  can  tell 
whether  this  region  is  more  or  less  dry 
than  that  along  the  central  route.  In 
Montana  the  country  looks  much  as  it 
does  farther  south;  there  are  fully  as 
many  irrigated  sections,  and  even  more 
dry  farms.  Great  numbers  of  cattle 
and  sheep  are  seen  grazing  on  the  prairie 
grass  here,  as  along  the  central  route. 
Its  value  for  food  is  suggested  by  the 
report  that  in  one  year  in  the  early  days 
250,000  buffalo  hides  were  shipped  out 
of  Miles  City  alone. 


Many  travelers  on  this  route  stop 
for  a  visit  to  Yellowstone  National 
Park  in  northwestern  Wyo- 
ming. Here  there  are  hun- 
dreds of  springs,  some  only 
two  or  three  inches  deep,  and  others 
many  feet,  which  are  boiling  all  the  time. 
In  some  of  them  the  boil- 
ing water  and  steam  now 
and  then  shoot  upward 
with  a  roar,  rising  to  a 
height  of  more  than  100 
feet.  Such  springs  are 
called  geysers;  there  are 
scores  of  them  in  the  park. 
Here  also  is  Yellowstone 
River,  whose  waters  tumble 
more  than  300  feet  in  one 
fall.  In  the  canyon  which 
the  river  has  cut  below 
these  falls,  the  rocky  banks 
are  2,000  feet  high  and 
beautifully  colored.  The 
park  is  properly  called  a 
wonderland. 

The  law  forbids  the  kill- 
ing of  animals  in  the  park; 
and  as  there  are  thousands 
of  visitors  passing  through 
the  park  every  summer,  the  wild  game 
becomes  tame.     Among  the  larger  kinds 
are  the  elk,  the  black  bear,  the  brown 
bear,  and  the  buffalo  or  bison  (Fig.  126). 
Back  of  the  hotels,  where  garbage  is  plen- 
tiful, one  can  often  walk  up  within  a  few 
feet  of  a  bear  without  alarm — at  least  to 
the  bear. 

The  two  leading  cities  on  the  northern 
route  are  Butte,  in  Montana,  and  Spo- 
kane, in  eastern  Washington.  They  owe 
their  growth  much  less  to  irrigation  than 
Denver  and  Salt  Lake  City  on  the  central 


THE  WESTERN   STATES 


135 


3.  Differences 
between  the 


route.  Butte  is  what  is  called  a  mining 
town.  It  is  the  center  of  one  of  the  great- 
est copper-mining  districts  in 
the  world,  having  more  than 
tht*^tSo  routes""  1^^  copper-mines  in  its  vicin- 
ity, many  of  them  within  the 
city  Umits.  One  fourth  of  all  the  copper 
produced  in  the  United  States  is  shipped 
from  the  Butte  region.  The  main  interest 
of  the  people,  therefore,  is  mining,  and 
their  leading  topics  of  conversation  con- 
cern work  in  the  mines,  the  price  of  cop- 
per, the  prospect  of  new  mines,  accidents 
in  the  mines,  strikes  in  the  mines,  and 
other  events  of  this  kind. 

Spokane  owes  its  growth  first  of  all 
to  the  rapids  and  falls  of  the  Spokane 
River  that  flows  through  it  (Fig.  127). 
These  furnish  immense  power  for  manu- 
facturing to  the  city.  Lumber  and  plan- 
ing mills  and  flour  mills  are  among  the 
largest  manufacturing  establishments. 

The  reason  for  both  of  these  industries 
is  found  largely  in  the  climate.  The 
Cascade  Mountains  in  western  Wash- 
ington, which  are  a  continuation  of  the 


Sierra  Nevada  of  CaUfomia,  are  lower 
than  the  latter,  so  that  the  damp  winds 
from  the  Pacific  carry  much  of  their 
moisture  over  them  and  drop  it  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  just  north  and  east 
of  Spokane.  On  this  account  extensive 
pine  forests"  are  found  in  this  region. 
Large  quantities  of  the  timber  reach 
Spokane 

These  winds  drop  some  of  their 
moisture  also  on  the  plateau  in  eastern 
Washington,  but  so  little  of  it  that  dry 
farming  (p.  131)  is  the  principal  kind 
in  this  section.  The  yield  of  wheat,  rye, 
and  barley  is  especially  large.  This  partly 
explains  why  Spokane  is  an  important 
center  for  flour  milUng.  In  addition, 
there  are  many  mines  in  the  surrounding 
country,  producing  gold,  silver,  copper, 
and  lead;  Spokane  is  a  trade  and  manu- 
facturing center  for  these  mining  sec- 
tions. 

Great  quantities  of  fruit  are  raised 
on  irrigated  lands  in  central  Washington 
east  of  the  Cascades,  especially  apples 
and  apricots. 


Courtesy  of  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Spokane 

Fig.  127. — The  falls  in  the  Spokane  River  at  Spokane 

Only  a  small  part  of  the  power  supplied  by  these  falls  is  used.    Notice  what  the  text  tells  you  about  the  use  of 
this  Dower. 


136 


NORTH   AMERICA 


West  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  in 
Washington  and  Oregon  is  a  lowland  cor- 
responding to  the  Valley  of 
CaUfornia  west  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  An  arm  of  the  sea, 
called  Puget  Sound,  reaches 
far  southward  into  Wash- 
ington; this  corresponds  to  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay.    Several  large  cities  and  many 


4.  How  the 
country  west  of 
the  Cascades 
compares  with 
central  Cali- 
fornia 


b.  The  differ- 
ence in  climate 


©  Asahel  Curtis 

Fig.  128.  —  A  power  dam  at  the  outlet  of  Long  Lake 
This  plant  supplies  electricity  to  Seattle  and  the  nearby  region.     A  large 
dam  has  been  built  here.     Some  of  the  water  is  passed  through  large  pipes 
to  the  power  house  on  the  right,  where  it  is  made  to  turn  water  wheels 
which  are  connected  with  dynamos  that  produce  electricity. 


towns  have  grown  up  about  the  Sound, 

the  most  important  of  which  are  Seattle 

and  Tacoma.     Both  these 

a.  The  location         .    .  .  i-(»    n  -j^        ±     i 

and  population  cities  are  beautiiuUy  situated 
of  the  chief  Q^  ^Yie  shores  of  the  Sound 
within  plain  view  of  the  great 
volcanic  peak  of  Mt.  Rainier  (Fig.  136). 
Locate  them,  and  name  other  cities 
near  by. 

Portland  (Fig.  129)  is  another  large 
city  of  the  Pacific  Northwest,  situated  in 
Oregon  100  miles  from  the  coast  on  the 


Willamette  River,  near  the  point  where 
it  flows  into  the  Columbia.  The  Willa- 
mette Valley  and  the  district  bordering 
Puget  Sound,  with  other  valleys,  form  a 
great  interior  lowland  between  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains  and  the  Coast  Range. 
How  do  the  cities  of  this  region  compare 
in  size  with  those  about  San  Francisco 
Bay  (p.  311)?    Trace  the  course  of  the 

Columbia  River. 

Fig.    146   shows   a  very 

great  difference  in  rainfall 

between    these 

lowlands.     The 

Valley   of    Cal-    "'"^  ^'^ /«'■'" 

...  .  products 

ifornia  receives 
a  light  rainfall,  most  of 
which  occurs  in  the  winter 
rronths.  The  rainfall  is 
heavy,  however,  over  the 
lowland  region  in  Oregon 
and  Washington.  Much 
rain  falls  farther  east,  also, 
particularly  on  the  west- 
ern slopes  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains.  The  western 
portion  of  both  these  states, 
therefore,  receives  abun- 
dant rainfall  for  agriculture. 
Considering  how  far 
north  this  region  is,  one  might  expect  the 
winters  to  be  severe.  But,  owing  to  the 
warm  ocean  winds,  flowers  bloom  in  the 
lowland  throughout  the  winter,  and 
Puget  Sound  is  always  free  from  ice. 
The  winter  temperature  is  not  much 
lower  than  that  about  San  Francisco. 

With  such  a  climate,  almost  all  kinds 
of  vegetation  flourish,  including  the  com- 
mon grains  and  a  great  variety  of  fruit. 
The  cooler  summers  and  greater  rainfall 
bring  about  the  main  differences  in  agri- 


THE  WESTERN   STATES 


137 


culture  between  the  Pacific  Northwest 
and  central  CaUfornia,  but  some  of  the 
same  crops  are  grown,  especially  in  the 
Willamette  Valley. 

Lumbering  and  fishing  are  two  other 

especially   important   industries   in   this 

region.    The  climate  and  soil 

c.  Why  two  ^  ,  J  J    X 

other  industries  togcthcr  have  produccd  trees 
are  especially     g^^]^  ^g  g^j-g  never  secn  in  the 

important  .  _ 

East  or  South.  The  Pacinc 
coast  is  the  land  of  big  trees.  The  largest 
are  in  the  Sequoia  National  Park  in 
California,  not  far  from  the  famous  Yo- 
semite  Valley.  Many  trees  here  are  as 
large  around  as  an  ordinary  living  room, 
and  several  are  over  thirty  feet  in  diam- 
eter. Measure  off  such  a  circle.  These 
trees  are  thousands  of  years  old. 

In   Washington   and   Oregon   a   large 


part  of  the  area  west  of  the  mountains 
is  forested,  and  while  the  trees  are  smaller 
than  those  just  mentioned,  many  of 
them  are  nevertheless  giants  (Fig.  130). 
The  Douglas  fir,  which  is  the  most  valu- 
able, measures  from  five  to  fifteen  feet 
in  diameter,  and  sometimes  reaches  a 
height  of  300  feet.  One  of  them  furnishes 
enough  lumber  to  build  a  house.  The 
Sitka  spruce  is  also  very  large.  Until  a 
few  years  ago,  the  distance  from  the  East 
checked  any  extensive  use  of  these  for- 
ests; but  the  trees  are  now  being  cut 
down  rapidly  for  lumber.  Washington 
now  manufactures  about  three  fifths  of 
all  the  shingles  made  in  the  United  States; 
and  Washington,  Oregon,  and  northern 
California  together  are  now  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  our  lumber  supply. 


JJmtlnnft.  (Orft^on  ^^^ ^  '**"^^WBPW^      4 

Courtesy  of  Portland,  Oregon,  Chamber  of  Commerce 

Fig.  129.  —  A  terminal  where  railways  and  ocean  vessels  meet 
This  is  a  drawing  of  the  great  terminal  at  Portland,  Oregon.     The  tall  buildings  are  grain  elevators.     The  long, 
low  buildings  are  warehouses.     How  is  the  terminal  arranged  to  permit  a  large  number  of  vessels  to  load  or  unload 
at  the  same  time?    In  the  distance  is  seen  the  snowy  peak  of  Mt.  Hood.   In  what  direction,  therefore,  are  you  looking? 


\] 


138 


NORTH  AMERICA 


How  the 
southern 
routes  com- 
pare with 
the  others 

1.  Points  of 
similarity  and 
difference 


)  Oilliams  Service 

Fig.  130.  —  Splitting  one  of  the  huge  logs  in  the 
forests  of  Washington 

Some  of  the  logs  are  too  large  to  be  transported  read- 
ily and  short  lengths  are  split  by  wedges  and  a  splitting 
or  riving  machine. 


While  there  is  fishing  of 
various  kinds  along  the 
Pacific  coast,  salmon  is  by 
far  the  most  important 
(Fig.  131).  The  salmon 
spends  most  of  its  life  in 
the  ocean,  but  runs  up  the 
rivers  in  order  to  deposit 
its  eggs  in  fresh  water.  It 
chooses  many  streams,  but 
an  especiallj''  large  number 
run  up  the  Columbia 
River,  where  vast  quanti- 
ties are  caught.  Most  of 
the  fish  are  canned.  Prob- 
ably some    of    the   canned 


salmon  that  you  have  seen  came  from 
the  canneries  near  Portland  or  from  cities 
on  Puget  Sound. 

If  one  goes  West  by  a  southern  route, 
one  may  start  either  from  Chicago  or 
Kansas  City  or  from  New 
Orleans,  and  travel  through 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and 
southern  California  to  Los 
Angeles.  The  route  lies  to 
the  south  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  Trace  the  southern  routes  on 
Fig.  121,  and  learn  their  names  by  con- 
sulting Fig.  150. 

Fig.  146  indicates  that  this  country  is 
even  more  arid  than  that  along  either 
of  the  other  routes.  It  is  also  much 
hotter  in  summer.  At  the  point  where 
one  crosses  the  Colorado  River  into 
California,  the  temperature  sometimes 
reaches  120  degrees  and  one's  watch 
becomes  unpleasantly  warm  to  hold  in 
the  hand.  In  spite  of  the  dryness  and  the 
heat,  one  sees  many  irrigation  systems, 


Cmirtesy  of  Columbia  River  Salmon  Cannery 

Fig,  131.  —  Cleaning  Columbia  River  salmon 
The  salmon  are  taken  to  the  cleaning  rooms  and,  after  all  offal  is  disposed 
of,  the  fish  are  thoroughly  washed  and  scraped. 


THE  WESTERN  STATES 


139 


and  much  of  the  land  is  given  over  to 
grazing  and  some  to  dry  farming.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  lead  are  mined,  but 
copper   is   by   far   the   most   important 


Courtesy  of  Alcfntson,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  Railroad 

Fig.  132.  —  An  Indian  woman  weaving  baskets 

The  Indians  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  live  in 
villages  and  are  therefore  called  Pueblo  Indians.  Pueblo 
is  the  Spanish  word  for  village.  This  woman  is  making 
baskets  to  be  sold  to  tourists.  Some  of  the  houses  of 
these  people  are  entered  by  a  ladder.  Do  you  see  a 
ladder  in  the  picture? 

metal.  Arizona  produces  more  copper 
than  any  other  state,  Montana  ranking 
next  to  it. 

The  most  interesting  side  trip  is  a 
visit  to  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colo- 
2.  The  most  in-  ^^do  Rivcr  in  Arizona.  The 
teresting  side  Grand  Cauyou  in  one  section 
is  a  full  mile  in  depth,  and 
it  is  a  hard  day's  climb  to  wind  one's 
way  down  to  the  bottom  and  back  again. 


The  river,  fed  by  waters  from  the  rains 
and  snows  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  has 
cut  its  way  tJirough  the  rocks  of  the 
plateau  to  this  great  depth.  Nor  has  it 
followed  a  straight  channel,  but  has 
wound  about,  so  that  now  the  mighty 
gorge  is  ten  to  thirteen  miles  wide  at  the 
point  most  often  visited.  There  are  so 
many  tall,  slender  chffs  left  standing 
that  they  often  shut  the  river  from  view 
and,  when  seen  from  below,  seem  to  be 
a  great  number  of  steep  and  lofty  moun- 
tains. 

Fig.  146  shows  that  the  central  and 
the  northern  routes  eome  out  west  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Gas-  3.  The  wonder- 
cade   Mountains   upon   well-   f^i  progress  of 

^  southern  Cau- 

watered     slopes.     But     the   forma 

southern   route    crosses    arid 

land  all  the  way  to  the  coast. 

There    is    httle    rain    in    any    part    of 

California  in   summer,   and   the   winter 


a.  Attractions 
of  the  dimcUe 


Courtesy  of  Goldwyn  Studios 

Fig.  133.  —  Drying  a  moving  picture  film 
These  men  are  engaged  in  drying  a  filni  in  one  of  the 
large  moving  picture  studios  in  Los  Angeles.    200,000  feet 
of  film  can  be  dried  in  this  room  in  one  day. 


140 


NORTH  AMERICA 


rainy  season  in  southern  California  lasts 
only  a  few  weeks.  People  boast  of  350 
days  of  sunshine  there  every  year.  How 
many  are  there  where  you  live?  The 
temperature  along  the  coast  is  cool 
throughout  the  summer,  while  it  rarely 
falls  to  the  freezing  point  in  winter.  Thus 
this  region  has  the  advantage  of  Florida 
as  a  winter  resort,  and  is  far  superior 
to  it  for  smumer  residence. 


They  soon  arranged  for  the  water. 
Not  far  from  the  coast  are  the  San 
Bernardino  Mountains,  which  receive 
heavy  rains  in  winter.  Why  could  not 
these  mountains  be  reached  with  irri- 
gation ditches,  the  people  asked;  and 
why  could  not  some  of  the  rain  that  falls 
in  winter  be  stored  for  use  in  summer? 

Following  such  plans,  dams  were  built 
among  the  hills  and  mountains,  collect- 


Fig.  134.  —  The  buildings  around  Pershing  Square,  Los  Angeles 


©  Hvddleston  Photo  Co. 


On  these  accounts  many  people  pre- 
fer it  to  Florida,  and  great  numbers  make 
their  homes  there  on  account  of  the  cli- 
mate. This  is  an  ideal  pliace  for  the  pro- 
duction of  motion  pictures  (Fig.  133) ;  for 
the  bright  sun,  the  agreeable  tempera- 
ture, and  the  freedom  from  rain  make 
it  possible  to  carry  on  such  work  almost 
the  entire  year.  More  than  15,000  per- 
sons are  usually  engaged  there  in  this 
industry. 

Southern  California  was  once  a  barren 
desert,  even  the  land  within  sight  of  the 
ocean.  That  was  because  the 
west  winds  that  carry  mois- 
ture far  into  Washington  and 
Oregon  do  not  blow  there 
in  summer.  Yet  people  saw 
that  the  soil  was  very  fertile,  and  that 
water,  wlierever  it  could  be  appHed  to 
the  land,  made  it  very  productive. 


h.  How  an  arid 
desert  has  been 
made  one  of  the 
most  prosperous 
parts  of  the 
world 


ing  the  winter  floods;  and  ditches  many 
miles  long  were  dug,  or  pipes  were  laid, 
leading  the  water  down  to  the  parched 
plains.  By  such  means  large  areas  have 
been  changed  into  gardens  of  fruit  trees 
with  attractive  homes.  More  than  one 
half  of  the  oranges,  and  nearly  all 
the  lemons  grown  in  the  United  States 
come  from  this  region;  a  large  part  of 
our  olives  and  English  walnuts  are  raised 
here;  vegetables  flourish;  and  forage 
crops  for  cattle  and  sheep  are  abundant. 
The  production  of  food  has  favored 
the  development  of  mining;  many  min- 
erals have  been  discovered  in  this  vicin- 
ity, including  a  great  quantity  of  oil. 
California  is  now  one  of  the  leading 
states  in  oil  production.  Some  of  the 
railroads  and  many  of  the  factories  use 
oil  as  fuel,  and  oil  refining  is  one  of  the 
leading  industries. 


THE  WESTERN  STATES 


141 


The  growth  in  population  has  been 
astonisliing.  In  1850  Los  Angeles  was 
c.  The  growth  Only  a  village,  but  now  it  is 
in  population  ^jjg  largest  city  in  the  West- 
ern States  (Fig.  121).  Compare  its  popu- 
lation with  that  of  San  Francisco  and 
Seattle  (p.  312).  There  are  also  many 
smaller  cities  about  it,  and  San  Diego,  an- 
other important  seaport,  is  not  far  away. 
Estimate  its  distance  from  Los  Angeles. 


1.  State  some  facts  showing  the 
great  distances  in  the  West.  2.  Why 
Review  did  people  formerly  hesitate 

questions         ^q  gg^^je  i^  this  scction?     3. 

Show  how  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Cah- 
fomia  encouraged  travel  to  the  Pacific 
coast.  4.  Describe  the 
early  ways  of  making  the 
journey.  5.  Make  a  draw- 
ing to  show  the  mountain 
systems  and  plateaus  that 
had  to  be  crossed  in  going 
from  Omaha  to  San  Fran- 
cisco. 6.  Describe  some  of 
the  scenes  that  the  pioneers 
of  1849  must  have  seen 
in  following  this  route. 

7.  What  two  great  changes 
in  the  vegetation  have 
taken  place  since  that  time? 

8.  How  is  water  distrib- 
uted over  the  land  about 
Denver,  and  what  ad- 
vantages    have    resulted? 

9.  Name  some  other  occu- 
pations that  have  been 
made  possible  by  these   farm  products. 

10.  Explain  the  reasons  for  the  growth 
of  Salt  Lake  City.  11.  Describe  Mr. 
Grant's  dry  farm.  12.  How  are  the 
crops    planned    and    cared    for  on  that 


farm?  13.  Tell  about  the  loneliness  of 
such  a  life  and  some  of  its  pleasures. 
14.  Name  the  principal  products  of  the 
Valley  of  CaUfornia.  15.  Describe  the 
harbor  of  San  Francisco.  16.  Mention 
some  facts  of  interest  about  the  city. 
17.  In  what  ways  are  the  northern  routes 
to  the  Pacific  coast  similar  to  the  central 
routes?  18.  Explain  some  of  the  wonders 
of  Yellowstone  National  Park.  19.  How 
do  the  two  leading  cities  on  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railway  differ  from  those  on  the 
central  routes?  20.  Name  and  locate  the 
chief  seaports  in  the  Pacific  Northwest. 
21.  Show  the  difference  between  the 
Pacific  Northwest  and  central  California 
in  cUmate  and  farm  products.    22.  Name 


.Si 

Photo  by  Gifford 

Fig.  135.  —  The  summit  of  Mount  Hood 
The  group  of  climbers  in  the  foreground  is  resting  after  the  ascent  of  the 
lower  slopes.    What  is  the  elevation  of  Mount  Hood?    It  can  be  seen  dis- 
tinctly from  Portland  (Fig.  129).    How  long  a  distance  is  that? 


two  other  industries  in  the  Northwest 
and  show  their  importance.  23.  How  do 
the  southern  routes  compare  with  those 
farther  north?  24.  State  some  facts 
about   the    Grand   Canyon.      25.  What 


142 


NORTH  AMERICA 


attractions  are  there  in  the  climate  of 
southern  CaUfornia?  26.  Tell  how  this 
arid  region  has  been  made  one  of  the 
most  prosperous  parts  of  the  world. 
27.  Show  the  growth  of  this  section 
in  population. 


Courtesy  of  Seattle  Chamber  of  Commerce 

Fig.  138.  —  Mount  Rainier  (Moimt  Tacoma) 
This  picture  is  taken  from  a  little  mountain  lake  high  up  on  its  slopes. 
Seen  from  Tacoma  or  Seattle,  this  mountain  is  an  almost  perfect  cone, 
glistening  white  with  snow.     What  is  its  height  (Fig.  121)? 

1.  Let    several    pupils    represent    the 
pioneers  of  1849  and  debate  among  them- 
selves the  most  desirable 

Suggestions 

for  extra  route  to  California.    2.  Write 

^^""^  a  letter  describing  the  hard- 

ships, as  you  imagine  them,  of  a  certain 
family  in  reaching  California  by  the 
Overland  Route  before  the  railroads  were 
built.  3.  Many  tons  of  salt  are  obtained 
each  year  from  Great  Salt  Lake.  Find 
how  it  is  secured.  4.  Find  the  diameter 
of  some  tree  near  your  school  and  com- 
pare it  with  the  large  trees  described  on 
p.  137.  5.  Make  a  drawing  of  Mr.  Grant's 


farm,  as  it  appears  to  you.  Include  the 
principal  fields  and  indicate  the  crop  in 
each.  6.  Show  how  you  could  irrigate 
a  piece  of  land  in  your  neighborhood, 
either  by  a  well  or  a  stream.  7.  Which 
of  the  three  routes  across  the  West  would 
you  now  choose?  8.  Point 
out  some  striking  differ- 
ences between  San  Fran- 
cisco and  New  Orleans. 
9.  Find  out  what  Western 
fruits,  if  any,  your  grocer 
sells.  10.  Make  a  collec- 
tion of  different  kinds  of 
ores.  11.  Trace  the  waters 
of  the  Yellowstone  River 
all  the  way  to  the  ocean. 
What  states  and  what 
cities  do  they  pass?  12. 
Buffalo  Bill  used  to  give 
exhibitions  of  early  West- 
ern life.  Describe  some  of 
the  things  done  in  them. 
13.  Learn  the  abbreviation 
used  for  the  name  of  each 
of  these  states.  14.  Many 
places  in  the  West  are 
noted  for  their  beautiful 
scenery.  Try  to  secure  railroad  folders 
or  advertisements  telling  of  the  beau- 
ties of  Glacier  National  Park;  the 
Yellowstone  National  Park;  Mt.  Rainier 
National  Park;  Yosemite  National  Park; 
the  Grand  Canyon;  Mt.  Shasta;  Mt. 
Hood;  Lake  Tahoe.  Compare  Fig.  121 
with  Fig.  150  to  find  the  names  of  the 
railroads  to  which  you  should  write. 
15.  Compare  Fig.  145  with  Fig.  146  to 
see  whether  there  is  in  general  a  denser 
population  in  the  well-watered  regions 
of  the  Western  States  than  in  the  arid 
regions. 


DEPENDENCIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


143 


VI.     Dependencies  of  the  United  States 


Tourists  especially  enjoy  the  wonders 
of  Alaska.  Imagine  that  you  are  plan- 
Alaska  ^^ing  ^  '^isit  there.  Ships 
1.  A  voyage  leave  Seattle  in  any  season 
to  Juneau  {qj.  ^  ten-day  round  trip 
along  the  southeastern  coast  of  Alaska. 
Follow  the  route  in  Fig.  157.  Such  a 
voyage  will  probably  be  very  different 
from  any  other  you  may  have  taken. 

As  you  start  north  you  will  have  the 
mainland  on  the  right  and  Vancouver 
Island  on  the  left.  The  route  lies  be- 
tween the  mountainous  coast  and  a  wall 
of  islands  for  nearly  the  entire  distance 
to  Skagway,  1,000  miles.  On  this  account 
it  is  called  the  Inside  Passage.  Note  how 
islands  protect  most  of  the  route  from 
ocean  storms.  With  such  protection,  are 
you  likely  to  suffer  from  seasickness  on 
the  trip?  Along  the  coast  the  mildness 
of  the  weather  may  surprise  you,  for  the 
temperature  in  winter  is  warmer  on  the 
average  than  at  St.  Louis.  In  the  inte- 
rior, however,  the  winters  are  long  and 
cold  (Fig.  137). 

The  winds  bring  moisture  also,  mak- 
ing rain  and  clouds  so  frequent  that  sun- 
shine is  a  treat.  It  is  said  that  on  the 
average  only  one  out  of  every  four  or 
five  days  in  the  year  is  clear.  But  the 
moisture  has  made  possible  many  of  the 
views  you  admire.  On  the  right  the 
mountains  rise  abruptly  from  3,000  to 
5,000  feet,  the  summits  of  some  of  them 
wrapped  in  snow.  On  their  slopes  are 
magnificent  forests,  while  at  their  bases 
you  are  astonished  to  see  plants  growing 
in  great  luxuriance.  The  wooded  islands 
are  full  of  game,  and  fish  abound  in  the 
waters.     Perhaps  most  strange  and  beau- 


tiful of  all  are  the  long,  narrow  bays 
carved  in  the  mountains  by  ancient  gla- 
ciers. The  walls  are  sometimes  so  steep 
and  high  that  sunshine  never  reaches  the 
water.  You  see  many  glaciers  at  the  heads 
of  the  bays.  What  pleasures  would  you 
expect  on  a  camping  trip  in  this  region? 
Near  the  end  of  the  Inside  Passage 
you  reach  Juneau,  the  capital  and  larg- 
est town  of  Alaska,  having;  a 

,  '  °  .  2.  Things  to 

population     of     3,500.         It     is       be  seen  about 

built  on  the  steep  slope  of  a 
mountain;     far    above    the    town    gUs- 
tens    the    snowy    peak.     Many  of    the 


Fig.  137.  —Winter  in  Alaska 

This  trapper's  cabin  is  near  the  route  of  the  government 
railroad  to  Fairbanks  (p.  144).  It  is  fifty  degrees  below 
zero,  and  the  owner  is  chopping  wood  for  his  stove.  What 
two  facts  in  this  picture  prove  to  you  that  there  is  very 
little  wind  here  in  cold  weather? 


144 


NORTH  AMERICA 


streets  lie  in  terraces,  and  winding  stair- 
ways entirely  replace  others,  so  that 
sightseeing  is  a  vigorous  exercise.  Juneau 
is  the  center  of  a  rich  gold-mining  region. 
Probably  you  will  visit  the  Treadwell 
mines  on  the  island  opposite  Juneau, 
where  the  largest  mills  in  the  world  for 
crushing  gold  ore  are  located. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  trips  in 
Alaska  is  from  Juneau  northwestward 
to  Seward  and  then  north  to 
Fairbanks.  The  voyage  to 
Seward  covers  a  distance  of 
about  500  miles.  Along  this 
stretch  of  coast  many  of  the 
largest  glaciers  of  our  continent  are 
found.  The  greatest  of  all  is  the  Mela- 
spina,  which  borders  the  water  for  about 
fifty  miles. 

The  trip  from  Seward  to  Fairbanks, 
470  miles,  can  soon  be  made  over  the 


3.  Facts  of  in- 
terest on  the 
trip  from  Juneau 
to  Fairbanks 
by  way  of 
Seward 


Fig.  138.— Mt.  McKinley 

This  is  the  highest  mountain  in  North  America.  What  is  its  altitude  (Fig. 
58)?  This  photograph  was  taken  from  a  point  about  fifty  miles  north  of  the 
mountain.  The  distant  mountain  in  the  center  of  the  pictiire,  with  clouds 
gathering  around  its  peak,  is  Mt.  Foraker,  17,000  feet  high. 


new    government    railroad.      Follow    in 
Fig.   157  this  partially  completed  line. 
This  portion  of  the  trip  is  of  great  in- 
terest because  it  shows  many  of  Alaska's 


resources.  The  railroad  passes  through 
good  farmlands  in  the  broad  valleys  and 
will  afford  an  outlet  for  great  quantities 
of  timber  to  the  seaboard  cities.  There 
is  also  much  pulp  wood,  suitable  for  the 
manufacture  of  paper,  in  the  part  of 
Alaska  touched  by  this  railroad.  Alaska 
has  the  most  important  coal  deposits  on 
our  western  coast;  a  branch  Une  of  the 
railroad  taps  the  largest  coal  area.  How 
is  this  coal  likely  to  be  important  to  us? 
Note  that  a  few  miles  to  the  west  of  the 
route  is  Mt.  McKinley  (Fig.  138),  the 
highest  mountain  on  the  continent.  At 
the  end  of  the  route  is  Fairbanks,  the 
center  of  a  gold-mining  region. 

In  summer  there  are  two  other  im- 
portant ways  of  reaching  Fairbanks. 
From  Skagway,  at  the  north- 

°        "^  4.  Two  other 

ern  end  of  the  Inside  Passage,  routes  to  Fair- 
a    railroad    leads    over    the     ^  ^ 

mountains  to  White  Horse 
in  Canada.  From  there 
the  journey  is  by  boat  down 
the  Yukon  (Fig.  139)  to  its 
tributary,  the  Tanana,  and 
up  that  river  to  Fairbanks. 
Trace  this  route  (Fig.  157). 
Another  but  far  longer 
way  is  from  Seattle  to  the 
west  coast  and  up  the  Yukon 
River  to  Fairbanks.  Trace 
this  route  also.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  river,  which 
lies  in  a  sandy  plain,  is  wind- 
ing and  so  shallow  that  only 
small  boats  can  enter.  Goods 
have  to  be  transferred  from 
ocean  vessels  to  river  boats  at  the  nearest 
port,  St.  Michael  (Fig.  157).  In  spite  of 
these  disadvantages,  the  Yukon  has  been 
an  important  route  because  it  is  the  chief 


DEPENDENCIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


145 


5.  Certain 
islands  that 
we  might  like 
to  visit 


passage  through  the  interior.     Why  are 

these  two  routes  open  only  in  summer? 
Alaskan  waters  have  an  abundance  of 

fish  and  a  visit  to  one  of  the  salmon-can- 
ning  plants   on 
Kodiak    Island, 
south  of    Cook 
Inlet,  would  be 

worth  while.     The  salmon 

are  caught  as  they  go  up 

the   rivers  in  the  breeding 

season.  The  largest  salmon- 
canning  factory  in  the  world 

is  on  a  stream  of  Kodiak 

Island,  where  3,000,000  fish 

are  canned  in  a  season.     If 

the    average   weight    of   a 

salmon  is  eight  pounds,  how 

many  tons  would  this  make? 

So  large  are  the  fish  exports 

that  Alaska  furnishes  nearly  half  of  the 

fish  products  of  the  United  States. 


A  trip  to  the  Pribilof  Islands,  far  to 
the  west  in  the  Bering  Sea,  where  the 
seals  herd  in  summer,  is  seldom  under- 
taken; yet  it  might  well  be  the  most  inter- 


©  Keystone  View  Co. ,  Inc. 

Fig.  140.  — Drying  sealskins 
Where  do  you  supjpose  this  picture  was  taken?     On  the  barren  islands  in 
Bering  Sea  and  in  most  of  the  western  part  of  Alaska,  imported  lumber 
must  be  used  for  building  purposes.    Can  you  see  why? 


Fig.  139.  — The  Yukon  River 

Steamboats  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  24  ply  up  and  down  this  broad  river 
during  the  "open"  season  from  late  in  May  until  early  October.  For  hundreds 
of  miles  the  river  follows  a  winding  course  through  the  mountains,  until  at 
length  it  reaches  low,  level  country  near  the  Arctic  circle  (Fig.  157).  Here 
in  midsummer  the  sun  can  be  seen  at  midnight. 

esting  experience  of  all.  If  one  ventured 
there,  the  first  thing  noticed  on  approach- 
ing would  be  the  continuous 
barking  of  hundreds  of  seals. 
Finally  out  of  the  fog  would 
rise  rocky  shores  swarming 
with  seal  families.  This  is 
their  summer  home  and  the 
young  are  born  here.  On 
land  the  animals  are  slow 
and  clumsy,  and  are  easily 
driven  in  large  groups  to 
grounds  where  they  are 
killed  and  skinned.  So 
many  have  been  killed  that 
our  government  protects 
them  now,  allowing  only  one 
company  to  take  a  certain 
number  of  skins  yearly. 
How  have  you  seen  seal- 
skins used? 


'*f 


146 


NORTH  AMERICA 


The  United  States  has  important  pos- 
sessions in  the  tropics  as  well  as  in  the 
far  North.  Porto  Rico  and 
part  of  a  group  of  islands 
called  the  Virgin  Islands  are 
under  our  control  (Fig.  158). 
In  Fig.  59  estimate  the  dis- 
tance of  San  Juan  from  New 
York.  A  strip  of  land  ten  miles 
wide  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  con- 
taining  the   Panama  Canal,  is  another 


Our  posses- 
sions in  the 
tropics 

1.  Names  and 
locations  of  our 
tropical  posses- 
sions 


2.  How  we 
obtained  these 
regions,  and  our 
prospects  for 
keeping  them 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  141.  —  A  Porto  Rican  school 

The  small  building  just  behind  the  group  of  children  is  the  schoolhouse. 
What  flag  floats  over  it?  Why?  What  other  sign  of  activity  by  Americans  do 
you  see  in  this  picture  in  addition  to  the  American  schoolhouse?  If  you 
can  explain  the  tower  on  the  left,  you  can  answer  this  question. 

possession  of  the  United  States  in  this 
region  (Fig.  158). 

Straight  west  of  Central  America,  far 
out  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  are  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  which  also  belong  to  us  (Fig.  315). 
Estimate  thedistance  of  Honolulu,  their 


principal  city,  from  the  Panama  Canal; 
from  San  Francisco. 

Far  to  the  west,  across  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  are  the  Philippine  Islands,  one  of 
our  most  important  possessions.  Manila 
is  their  leading  city.  How  would  you 
reach  it  from  San  Francisco?  From  New 
York? 

These  regions  have  been  obtained  in 
different  ways.  The  strip  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  was  ob- 
tained in  1903 
from  the  little 
republic  of 
Panama.  Our 
object  in  securing  it  was 
the  digging  of  a  ship  canal 
from  ocean  to  ocean.  This 
great  task  was  completed 
in  1914. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands 
used  to  be  an  independent 
kingdom.  In  1893  they 
rebelled  against  their  ruler 
and  formed  a  republic. 
Later  they  asked  to  be  made 
a  part  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  1898  became  one  of 
our  territories. 

The  future  relation  of  the 
other  islands  to  the  United 
States  is  less  certain.   Porto 
Rico   and    the    PhiUppines 
were  obtained  as  the  result 
of  a  war  with  Spain.  They 
had  been  for  a  long  time 
under  the  rule  of  Spain;  but  they  were 
not  content  with  their  government,  and 
there  had  been  much  trouble  and  blood- 
shed.    In  1898  the  United  States  went  to 
the  aid  of  the  Cubans,  who  were  fighting 
for   their   independence.      This   quickly 


DEPENDENCIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


147 


brought  on  a  war  between  our  country 
and  Spain,  known  as  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can War,  in  which  we  were  the  victors. 
Spain  then  surrendered  these  islands  to 
us.  Cuba  is  now  independent,  but  Porto 
Rico  (Fig.  158)  and  the  Philippines  have 
remained  under  our  control.  We  have, 
however,  held  out  the  prospect  of  inde- 
pendence to  the  Filipinos  as  soon  as  they 
show  that  they  are  able  to  govern  them- 
selves without  our  help.  Self-government 
there  is  not  easy,  for  there  are  more  than 
3,000  islands  in  the  group,  and  there  are 
several  races  among  the 
natives,  many  of  whom  are 
still  uncivilized.  Yet  the 
people,  under  our  control, 
have  made  remarkable 
progress. 

A  close  relation  between 
our  island  possessions  and 
,   _  the      United 

3.  Advantages  . 

of  a  close  rela-      StateS    bnUgS 

tion  between         .  i         •  i 

these  islands      important    ad- 
^od^the  United    vantages  both  to 

them  and  to  us. 
First  of  all,  they  are  im- 
portant as  stopping  places 
for  our  vessels,  where  re- 
pairs can  be  made  and  where 
coal  and  other  supplies  can 
be  obtained.  We  have  many  ships  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  and  it  is 
much  Hke  reaching  home  when  they 
enter  the  port  of  San  Juan,  Honolulu, 
or  Manila. 

Much  more  important  is  our  commerce 
with  these  islands.  Since  they  lie  in  the 
tropics,  and  have  plenty  of  rain,  their 
most  important  product  is  sugar  cane. 
They  produce,  also,  tobacco  and  coffee; 
great  quantities  of   tropical  fruits;   and 


many  kinds  of  valuable  tropical  woods.  A 
very  important  product  of  the  Philippines 
is  hemp,  which  is  used  in  making  a  fine 
quahty  of  rope,  called  Manila  rope.  All 
these  things  we  use  extensively,  while  none 
of  them  is  produced  by  us  in  large  enough 
quantities  to  meet  our  demands.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  manufacture  very  exten- 
sively, while  these  islands  do  little  manu- 
facturing. Thus  by  an  exchange  of 
products  both  sides  are  greatly  benefited. 
We  have  seen  that  one  of  the  leading 
industries  of  San  Francisco  is  the  refining 


These  are  the 
houses  are  owned 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  142. — An  Hawaiian  village 
homes  of  sugar  plantation  workers  on  Oahu  Island.  The 
by  one  of  the  large  plantation  companies. 

of  raw  sugar  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
(p.  133).  To  what  ports  of  the  United 
States  would  you  expect  products  from 
Porto  Rico  to  be  sent?  Products  from 
the  PhHippines  (Fig.  315)? 

The  Panama  Canal  is  of  world-wide 
importance.     Before    it    was 

4.  Influence  of 

dug,  vessels  bound  from  New    the  Panama 
York  to  San  Francisco  had  to     "^ 
go  around  South  America.     The  Canal 
reduces    this    distance    8,000    mile^. 


148 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Estimate  the  distance  it  saves  for  vessels 
from  San  Francisco  to  New  Orleans. 
a.  Th^  distance  What  other  important  ocean 
a  saves  routes  that  you  can  think  of 

are  greatly  shortened  by  it? 


©  Browii,  Bros. 


Fig.  143. — Extracting  Manila  hemp  fiber 

The  Manila  hemp  plant  really  belongs  to  the  banana 
family.  The  fiber  is  obtained  by  cutting  the  leaf  into 
strips  and  pulling  these  strips  over  a  blunt  knife  held 
against  the  flat  side  of  a  board.  This  process  crushes 
the  pulp  and  leaves  the  white  fiber  free  and  smooth. 
Nearly  all  the  Manila  hemp  of  the  world  comes  from  the 
Philippines. 

The  French  began  a  canal  here  in 
1881,  but  they  lost  hundreds  of  men  by 
,  ,,  .  fever,  and  never  finished  the 

o.  Its  improve-  ' 

ment  of  health  veuturc.  Some  of  the  first 
coruiitions         ^j^.^^^  ^-^^^  ^^^  govemment 

did  in  preparation  for  the  actual  digging 
were  to  fill  up  or  drain  the  surrounding 
swamp  lands,  destroy  all  the  mosquitoes 
possible,  build  comfortable  homes  well 
protected  by  mosquito  netting,  and  pro- 
vide good  drinking  water  and  a  sewerage 
system.  Before  this  time,  Colon  and 
Panama,  the  towns  at  the  ends  of  the 
Canal,  were  among  the  most  dangerous 
places  on  the  earth;  but  they  have  been 


made  as  healthful  as  most  cities  in  the 
United  States.  Locate  these  towns  on 
Fig.  158. 

The  success  of  these  sanitary  measures 
has  had  a  wonderful  influence  on  people's 
opinion  of  the  tropics.  Up  to  this  time, 
they  had  supposed  that  the  tropical  zone 
was  by  nature  very  unhealthful,  and  that 
for  this  reason  it  could  never  prove  of 
much  value  to  white  men.  This  success 
suggests  great  possibilities  for  the  future 
of  all  these  hot  lands. 

Before  the  Canal  was  built,  there  was 
little  reason  for  travelers  to  visit  Panama 
or  any  part  of  Central  Amer-  c.  its  influence 
ica,  and  on  account  of  the  «'*^''«''«^ 
great  danger  to  health  they  kept  away. 
The  whole  region,  therefore,  was  little 
known.  Now  the  Canal  is  one  of  the 
central  points  of  interest  for  the  whole 
world,  and  many  persons  go  there  to 
see  it. 

The  Canal  is  about  forty  miles  long. 
It  takes  about  ten  hours  to  pass  through 
it.  The  vessel,  soon  after  entering,  has 
to  be  raised  eighty-five  feet;  and  it  has 
to  be  lowered  again  at  the  other  end  of 
the  Canal.  This  raising  and  lowering  is 
done  by  locks,  such  as  are  common  in 
canals  in  the  .United  States  (Fig.  84). 
The  chief  difference  is  that,  since  this  is 
a  canal  for  the  largest  ocean  vessels,  the 
locks  are  far  larger.  Can  you  imagine 
the  view  backward  from  the  ship  after  it 
has  been  raised  eighty-five  feet? 

Much  of  Central  America  is  moun- 
tainous, Uke  Mexico  (Fig.  58) ;  and  one  of 
the  disappointments  that  some  people 
experience  as  they  approach  the  Canal 
is  that  the  land  about  it  is  so  low  and 
level.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  this 
was  a  favorable  location  for  it;  yet  there 


REVIEW  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


149 


is   one   place,   called   the   Gaillard   Cut, 
where  it  was  necessary  to  dig  through  a 
hill  300  feet  high.   This  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  parts  of  the  Canal  to  visit. 
Can  you  reproduce  some  of  the  conversa- 
tion that   might   be   over- 
heard on  a  vessel  as  it  neared 
and    passed    through    this     > 
section? 


to  Galveston,  New  Orleans,  Mobile, 
Charleston,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  and  Boston.  Trace  the  routes 
they  would  be  likely  to  take  to  these 
cities    from    Panama.     5.    What    goods 


1.  How  may  tourists  be 
expected  to  enjoy  the  voy- 
Review  age   to  Juneau? 

questions        2.    Name    some 

of  the  things  of  interest 
about  Juneau.  3.  Some  of 
the  points  of  interest  on  the 
journey  to  Fairbanks  bj^ 
way  of  Seward.  4.  Trace 
two  other  routes  from 
Juneau  to  Fairbanks.  5. 
What  islands  off  the  coast 
of  Alaska  are  well  worth  a 
visit,  and  what  would  be 
seen  there?  6.  Name  and 
locate  our  chief  tropical  pos- 
sessions. 7.  How  did  we  obtain  these 
regions,  and  what  are  our  prospects  for 
keeping  them?  8.  What  advantages  are 
there  in  a  close  relation  between  these 
islands  and  the  United  States?  9.  Ex- 
plain how  the  Panama  Canal  saves  dis- 
tance. 10.  Show  the  influence  of  the 
Canal  Zone  on  health  in  the  tropics. 
11.  How  does  the  Canal  influence  travel? 
1.  Describe  a  glacier.  2.  Which  would 
you  prefer,  a  visit  to  Honolulu,  or  one  to 
Suggestions  Juueau?  Why?  3.  Do  you 
for  extra  work  j-^gard  Alaska  as  more  or  less 
valuable  to  our  country  than  the  PhiUp- 
pines?  Why?  4.  The  vessels  of  the 
United  Fruit  Company  carry  their  goods 


©  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Fig.  144.  —  An  ocean  steamer  in  the  Miraflores  Locks,  Panama  Canal 
Note  the  electric  engine  that  is  used  to  tow  vessels  through  the  locks. 
Compare  this  view  with  Fig.  84  to  see  how  the  locks  work. 

would  such  vessels  be  likely  to  take  on 
their  return  voyages  to  the  tropics? 


VII.     Review  of  the  United  States 

We  have  seen  that  the  forty-eight  states 
in  our  Union  have  been  settled  chiefly  by 

people    who    came    from    the      Distribution 

East.  First,  immigrants  from  of  population 
England  and  other  countries  of  Europe 
made  their  homes  along  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Then  there  was  a  movement  of 
pioneers  westward  across  the  Appala- 
chian Highland  and  the  Mississippi  Ba- 
sin.   Finally,  settlers  pushed  across  the 


150 


NORTH  AMERICA 


mountains  and  plateaus  of  the  West 
until  the  Pacific  coast  was  reached.  Now 
the  105,000,000  people  in  the  United 
States  are  distributed  over  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  country. 

They  are,  however,  by  no  means  evenly 
distributed.  In  Fig.  145  you  can  draw  a 
north  and  south  line  through  Oklahoma 
City  that  divides  the  United  States  into 


population,  we  mean  that  there  are  as 
many  persons  living  east  of  it  as  west, 
and  as  many  north  of  it  as  south.  How 
far  do  you  Hve  from  it,  and  in  what 
direction? 

From  the  same  map  you  can  tell  what 
parts  of  the  country  are  most  densely 
settled,  and  what  parts  have  the  fewest 
people.   Name  the  states  that  are  densely 


One  dot  represents  10,000  people 
Center  of  population 


Fig.  145.  — The  distribution  of  population  in  the  United  States,  192D 
Each  dot  stands  for  10,000  people.    Find  the  center  of  population,  represented  by  a  star. 


two  nearly  equal  parts.  But  the  people 
would  be  by  no  means  equally  divided. 
Very  many  more  would  be  found  east  of 
this  line  than  west  of  it.  While  this  line 
would  pass  through  the  middle  part  of 
the  country,  the  center  of  population 
would  be  a  long  distance  to  the  east  of  it. 
You  will  find  this  point  in  southern  Indi- 
ana marked  by  a  star  on  Fig.  145.  By 
gayjng  that  this  star  marks  the  center  of 


populated;    the    ones    that    are    thinly 
populated. 

On  p.  311  you  will  find  a  list  of  the 
twenty-five  largest  cities  in  the  United 
States.  See  how  many  of  Distribution 
these  you  can  name  and  locate  °^  ^^^^^  *^'*'®^ 
on  Fig.  145.  How  many  of  them  are  in 
the  eastern  half  of  our  country?  Which 
are  in  the  western  half?  How  do  the  lat- 
ter compare  with  the  former  in  size? 


REVIEW  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


151 


Reasons  for 
the  differ- 
ence in  popu- 
lation between 
the  East  and 
the  West 


There  are  many  reasons  why  the  East 
is  so  much  more  densely  populated  than 
the  West.  Can  you  recall 
several  of  them?  The  one 
that  is  probably  most  impor- 
tant is  suggested  in  Fig.  146. 
It  is  the  distribution  of  rain- 
fall. In  that  map,  trace  the  line  dividing 
the  arid  section  of  the 
United  States,  where 
there  is  less  than  twenty 
inches  of  rain,  from  the 
well-watered  region.  No- 
tice how  near  this  line 
is  to  the  north  and  south 
line  dividing  our  coun- 
try into  two  equal  parts. 
What  portion  of  the 
West  is  too  dry  for  ordin- 
ary farming?  How  does 
the  rainfall  vary  over  all 
that  area?  What  states 
are  included  in  it?  What 
parts  of  the  West  have 
plenty  of  rain  for  agricul- 
ture? Describe  the  two 
kinds  of  farming  that  are 
carried  on  in  the  arid 
region.  How  does  the 
rainfall  vary  in  the 
South?  In  the  North 
Central  States?  In  the 
Northeastern  States? 

Probably  the  next  most 
important  reason  for 
the  difference  in  popu- 
lation between  the  East 
and  West  is  found  in  the 
difference  in  the  extent 
of  mountainous  areas  in 
the  two  regions.  Name  three  systems 
of  mountains  in  the  West  that  reach  at 


least  most  of  the  way  from  the  Canadian 
boundary  to  Mexico.  What  name  is 
applied  to  all  these  ranges  together  (Fig. 
58)?  Which  states  are  crossed  by  the 
Rocky  Mountains?  Which  by  the  Sierra 
Nevada?  Which  by  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains? In  what  states  are  the  Coast 
Ranges?   State  two  reasons  why  moun- 


Wiu^tK.CvaK.r. 


Fig.  146. — Annual  rainfall  in  North  America 


tains   are  likely 
agriculture. 


to   be  unfavorable  to 


152 


NORTH  AMERICA 


What  extensive  highland  region  is  there 
in  the  East?  What  states  there  are  moun- 
tainous? How  do  these  highlands  compare 
in  height  and  area  with  those  in  the  West? 

The  occupation  that  most  influences 

population  is  farming.    Nearly  one  sixth 

of    all    the    workers    in    our 

flr^t^tc^"^'     country  are  engaged  in  that 

tions  are  alike  industry.      Wherever    condi- 

in  their  farm       ,  •  r  r» 

products  tions   for   farmmg    are    very 

favorable,  there  is  likely  to 

be  a  large  population;  and  it  is  largely 

because  the  lack  of  rain  and  the  moun- 


From  The  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture  (1910) 

Fig.  147 


tains  make  many  parts  of  the  West  so 
unfavorable  to  agriculture  that  it  has  so 
few  inhabitants.  The  North  Central 
States  take  the  lead  in  the  production  of 
farm  crops;  the  Southern  States  rank  next. 
In  spite  of  many  differences  in  the 
crops  of  these  sections,  there  are  certain 
farm  products  that  are  found  in  almost 
every  place  where  there  is  farming.  One 
of  these  is  hay;  another  is  cattle,  together 
with  milk  and  butter;  a  third  is  poultry; 
a  fourth  is  potatoes;  and  a  fifth  is  fruit, 
particularly    apples.     Can    you    suggest 


some  reasons  why  these  are  so  common? 
Fruit  is  raised  extensively  in  all  four 
groups  of  states.  Name  the  kind  grown 
most  extensively  along  the  southern  side 
of  Lake  Erie  (p.  81).  What  kind  is 
raised  on  the  eastern  side  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan (p.  90)?  What  kinds  come  in  large 
amounts  from  California,  Washington, 
and  Oregon  (pp.  132,  135-7)? 

The  South  enjoys  many  advantages  over 
the  other  sections  for  farming.  Its  abun- 
dant rainfall,  fertile  soil,  and 

,.         .         ,,         ...  .        Advantages 

warm  climate  allow  it  to  raise  for  farming 

nearly  all  the  that  the  South 

•^  enjoys  over 

crops    grown  other  sections 

elsewhere  in  the  sJI'e^g^""^^ 
United  States, 
and  several  others  besides. 
Its  most  important  crop  is 
cotton,  which  is  grown  there 
far  more  extensively  than 
anywhere  else  in  the  world. 
Show  the  area  on  the  map 
that  is  suited  to  cotton,  and 
name  the  principal  cotton 
states  (Fig.  101).  It  is  the 
only  section  of  the  United 
States  that  can  grow  sugar 
cane.  In  what  state  is  cane 
chiefly  produced  (p.  105)?  What  outly- 
ing possession  of  the  United  States  pro- 
duces great  quantities  (p.  147)?  The 
South  also  produces  rice  and  large  quan- 
tities of  tobacco;  and  there  is  only  one 
other  section  that  competes  with  it  in 
citrus  fruits.  What  section  is  that  (p.  140)  ? 
The  South  comes  nearer  supplying  itself 
with  all  the  kinds  of  food  needed  than 
any  other  portion  of  our  country. 

In  spite  of  the  advantages  of  the  South 
for  agriculture,  the  North  Central  States 
are  our  most  important  section  for  the 


REVIEW  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


153 


production  of  food.  While  corn  is  grown 
in  most  parts  ol'  our  country,  the  noted 
Wh  the  Corn  Belt  lies  entirely  in  these 

North  Central  states  (Fig.  147).  Name  the 
d^eTe""  States  included  in  it.  The 
greatest  quan-  reason  for  this  fact  is  that  the 
^  °  °°  soil  and  climate  of  these  states 
are  better  fitted  for  this  crop  than  the 
soil  and  chmate  elsewhere.  The  presence 
of  so  much  corn  makes  it  possible  to 
fatten  great  numbers  of  cattle  and  hogs, 
for  corn  is  the  best  feed  for  fattening 
those  animals. 

Wheat  as  well  as  com  is  a  noted  crop  of 
this  section.  Fig.  148  shows 
how  extensively  wheat  is 
grown  in  the  United  States. 
Note  how  superior  the 
North  Central  States  are  to 
any  other  entire  group  in 
its  production.  Name  the 
states  which  lead  in  this 
crop.  Again,  it  is  the  soil 
and  climate  that  allow  such 
great  success  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  wheat.  Thus,  we 
owe  our  supply  of  meat  and 
bread  more  to  the  North 
Central  States  than  to  any 
other  part  of  our  country. 

Fig.  145  shows  that  the  Northeastern 
States  and  those  bordering  the  Great 
Why  the  Lakes  are  the  most  densely 

Northeastern  populated  portions  of  the 
u^ted  states  United  States.  What  is  the 
is  most  dense-  principal  reason  for  this?  It 
ypopuae  ^annot  be  due  to  agriculture, 
because  much  of  the  surface  is  very 
poor  farmland.    Show  that  this  is  true. 

It  is  partly  due  to  coal,  the  most  im- 
portant mineral.  There  is  one  state  in 
this  section  that  mines  nearly  as  much 


coal  as  all  our  other  states  together. 
Name  it.  What  can  you  tell  about  the 
kinds  of  coal  it  produces  and  the  quan- 
tity of  each  (p;  77)?  Name  some  of 
the  "coal  cities"  (p.  77). 

Yet  the  dense  population  cannot  be 
due  to  coal  alone,  for  there  are  other  sec- 
tions that  are  well  supplied  with  it. 
Show  what  they  are  (Fig.  149).  How 
does  the  West  compare  with  the  East 
in  abundance  of  coal? 

It  is  iron  ore  and  other  metals,  together 
with  coal,  that  largely  explain  the  dense 
population  there.    Iron  ore  ranks  next  to 


From  The  Geography  of  The  World's  Agriculture  {1910) 

Fig.  148 

coal  in  value  as  a  mineral.  Where  does 
that  ore  come  from  (p.  78)?  Describe 
the  course  it  takes  to  reach  Detroit; 
Cleveland;  Buffalo;  Pittsburgh  (Fig.  86). 
In  what  state  of  the  North  Central  group 
is  copper  mined  extensively  (p.  87)? 
The  Western  States  send  large  quantities 
of  metal  to  this  section  also.  Which  are 
most  noted  for  copper  (p.  139)? 

What  use  does  the  East  make  of  iron 
ore?  How  are  the  articles  that  New  Eng- 
land manufactures  from  it  different  from 


154 


NORTH  AMERICA 


those  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  states 
surrounding  it  (p.  78)?  Why  is  there 
such  a  difference? 

Skill  in  manufacturing  other  things 
than  iron  goods  is  another  reason  for  the 
dense  population  of  these  states.  In  one 
section,  great  quantities  of  cotton  goods, 


The  same  can  be  said  of  the  North  Central 
States.  Yet  these  two  sections  now  sup- 
ply  only   a    small    part   of  the   where  we  are 

wood  they  require.    In  many  now  getting 

1  l^     •      p  i      1  1  our  lumber 

places  tneir  lorests  have  been 
destroyed,  as  have  those  west  of  Lake 
Huron  (p.  86). 


Fig.  149.  —  Coal  and  iron  in  the  United  States 
The  only  deposits  shown  here  are  those  that  have  been  mined  or  are  being  mined  at  present. 


woolen  goods,  and  leather  goods  are 
made,  even  though  that  section  produces 
no  cotton  and  very  little  wool  or  leather. 
Which  states  are  engaged  in  such  manu- 
facturing (p.  79)?  Name  and  locate 
some  of  the  cities  that  are  occupied  with 
one  or  more  of  these  industries.  What 
kinds  of  factories  are  found  in  Detroit 
(p.  85)?  In  Chicago  and  vicinity  (p. 
92)?   In  MinneapoUs  (p.  95)? 

Lumbering  used  to  be  a  very  important 
industry  in  the  Northeastern  States, 
which  still  produce  considerable  timber. 


What  portion  of  the  South  has  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  these  other  groups 
of  states  in  the  destruction  of  its  forests 
(p.  116)?  The  timber  in  the  South  is 
being  so  rapidly  exhausted  that  the 
Pacific  Northwest  is  now  our  principal 
source  of  supply.  What  do  you  remem- 
ber about  the  kinds  of  trees  there,  and 
their  size  (p.  137)? 

Aside  from  wagon  roads,  the  chief 
means  for  transportation  of  goods  from 
one  part  of  our  country  to  another  are 
waterways   and    railroads.     By   far   the 


156 


NORTH  AMERICA 


most  important  waterway  is  the  Great 
Lakes  system.  How  are  they  connected 
Our  provisions  ^y  Water  with  New  York  City 


for  transporta 
tion 


(p.  73)?  Trace  the  route 
from  Duluth  and  from  Chicago 
to  New  York.  What  goods  are  carried 
east  on  these  lakes  (p.  84)?  What 
goods  are  carried  west  (p.  87)? 

The  railroads  carry  many  times  as 
much  freight  as  the  rivers.  Fig.  150 
shows  what  a  network  of  railways  we 
have.  What  is  our  greatest  railroad  cen- 
ter (p.  92)?  How  can  you  explain  its 
importance?  What  other  great  railroad 
centers  do  you  find  in  the  North  Central 
States? 

Our  greatest  port  is  New  York.  It 
receives  and  sends  away  about  as  many 
goods  as  all  our  other  ports  together. 
Can  you  give  a  reason  for  such  impor- 


tance? Name  one  important  port  north- 
east of  New  York,  and  two  others  south- 
west of  it.  The  two  leading  ports  in  the 
South  are  New  Orleans  and  Galveston. 
Locate  each,  and  state  some  of  their 
advantages  (p.  114).  What  port  on  the 
Pacific  coast  is  located  100  miles  up  a 
river,  like  New  Orleans?  Name  and  lo- 
cate two  other  prominent  ports  on  the 
Pacific  coast. 

Name  the  dependencies  of  the  United 
States  and  locate  each.  Which  of  them 
seems  to  you  most  valuable?  The  value  of 
Why?  What  important  prod-  our  depend- 
ucts  are  furnished  by  Alaska? 
What  products  do  our  tropical  posses- 
sions supply  that  cannot  be  raised  in 
large  quantities  in  our  own  country? 
In  what  ways  is  the  Panama  Canal  of 
importance  to  us? 


VIII.     Other  Countries  of  North  America 
1.    Canada  and  Newfoundland 


Canada  is  a  land  of  enormous  area, 

being  about  as  large  as  the  United  States 

and  Mexico  to- 

and  why  only    narrow     strip 

the  southern      i_       j       •  x  t_ 

part  is  settled  bordering  the 
United  States, 
however,  has  been  settled. 
This  strip  averages  hardly 
200  miles  in  width.  Esti- 
mate its  length  from  ocean 
to  ocean,  and  the  part  of  the 
entire  area  which  it  forms. 
Why  have  the  people  kept 
so  close  to  the  southern 
boundary?  Fig.  151  sug- 
gests some  of  the  reasons. 
North    of  a    line    that    is 


shown  there,  neither  trees  nor  any  other 
valuable  kind  of  plant  can  grow,  because 


Fig.  151.  —  Farmlands  in  Canada 


CANADA  AND  NEWFOUNDLAND 


157 


the  average  temperature,  even  in  July,  is 
under  fifty  degrees.  How  much  of  Can- 
ada can  you  estimate  is  thus  made  nearly 
useless  by  the  cold? 

The  same  map  shows  what  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  country  has  very  thin  soil — in 
most  parts  too  thin  for  farming.  It  is 
now  largely  covered  with  forests,  which 


In  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick 
(Fig.  157)  the  surface  is  rough,  as  in  New 
England,  and  much  of  the  land  is  ill 
suited  to  farming.  Yet  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, particularly  apples,  potatoes,  and 
turnips,  are  grown  extensively,  and  dairy- 
ing is  carried  on  much  as  in  our  northern 
states. 


V 


Fig.  152. — Harvesting  wheat,  Saskatchewan 


©  Brown  Bros. 


mil  probably,  on  that  account,  not  be 
cut  down  to  clear  the  land  for  farming. 
Note  how  little  good  land  is  left  along 
the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  north  of  the 
Great  Lakes.  The  extreme  cold  and  the 
thin  soil  are  the  chief  reasons  why  the 
settlers  of  Canada  have  kept  so  close  to 
the  southern  boundary. 

A  large  part  of  the  boundary  between 
the  United  States  and  Canada  is  only  an 
imaginary  line,  and  there  is 
nothing  in  the  surface  or  cli- 
mate that  suggests  a  change 
from  one  country  to  the  other. 
As  might  be  expected,  the 
farm  products  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
our  northern  states. 


Similarity  of 
our  northern 
states  and 
Canada  in 
farm  products 


Along  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and 
north  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Ohio,  wheat,  rye,  and  oats  and  many 
kinds  of  vegetables  are  raised,  while 
grapes,  apples,  and  peaches  are  common, 
as  in  western  New  York  and  northern 
Ohio. 

Across  from  Minnesota,  North  Dakota, 
and  Montana,  an  immense  area  is  de- 
voted to  wheat.  Oats  and  rye  are  also 
important  crops,  as  in  those  states. 

Just  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, in  Alberta  (Fig  157),  it  is  dry; 
much  of  the  land  there  is  on  that  account 
given  over  to  cattle  and  sheep,  as  it  is  in 
western  Montana,  while  the  irrigated  sec- 
tions produce  potatoes,  alfalfa,  and  fruits. 


158 


NORTH  AMERICA 


In  British  Columbia  the  correspond- 
ence continues,  the  chief  products  in 
the  fertile  valleys  being,  as  in  Washing- 
ton, apples,  pears,  plums  and  other 
fruits,  hops,  and  vegetables,  while  grazing 
is  common  in  the  dry  sections. 


and  the  west  winds  that  blow  regularly 
across  it  make  the  coast  climate  surpris- 
ingly mild  in  winter.  Flowers  bloom  in 
the  gardens  at  Victoria  and  Vancouver 
(Fig.  157)  all  the  year  round.  East  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains   the  west  winds 


|ii»MMfe*^iae*2r 


^•j&jiii-. 


©  Ewing  Galloway 


Fig.  153. — Apple-blossom  time  in  Nova  Scotia 

Can  you  see  any  differences  between  this  country  scene  and  those  near  your  home?  Will  pupils  in  all  sections  of 
our  country  answer  this  question  in  the  same  way? 


Montreal  used  to  attract  winter  visi- 
tors by  building  magnificent  ice  palaces, 
and    many    people    came    to 
is  able  to  raise  associate    Canada    with    the 
crops  so  simi-   Arctic  regions,  even  in  sum- 

lar  to  our  own  °  ' 

mer.  They  could  understand 
why  southern  Ontario  might  raise  prod- 
ucts similar  to  those  of  our  northern 
states,  for  it  lies  as  far  south  as  many  of 
them  and  its  climate  is  made  mild  by 
the  surrounding  lakes.  Other  portions  of 
Canada,  it  was  thought,  could  never  pro- 
duce much  because  they  lay  so  far  north. 
Recent  years  have  greatly  changed 
this  impression.  British  Columbia  is 
farther  north  than  northern  Maine,  but 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean  is  twenty  de- 
grees warmer  than  the  North  Atlantic, 


have  little  influence  on  the  temperature, 
and  the  winters  are  very  cold.  At  Edmon- 
ton, in  Alberta,  the  temperature  some- 
times falls  to  forty-five  degrees  below 
zero,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  central 
provinces  it  is  still  colder. 

The  summer,  however,  is  the  important 
season  for  the  farmer,  and  while  frosts 
last  late  in  the  spring  and  come  early  in 
the  fall,  midsummer  days  are  not  only 
warm  but  much  longer  than  ours.  This 
latter  fact  is  very  important  in  the  ma- 
turing of  crops.  At  Edmonton  on  June 
21st  the  sun  shines  for  about  sixteen 
hours.  Thus  the  long  days  make  up  to  a 
certain  extent  for  the  short  summer  and 
the  slant  at  which  the  sun's  rays  strike 
the  earth. 


CANADA  AND  NEWFOUNDLAND 


159 


Some  reasons 
for  close 
friendship  be- 
tween the 
United  States 
and  Canada 


Since  only  an  imaginary  line  separates 
much  of  the  United  States  from  Canada, 
it  would  be  easy  for  trouble 
to  arise  here  if  there  were 
bad  feeling  between  the  two 
countries.  Yet  there  has 
been  no  serious  difficulty  be- 
tween us  for  more  than  100  years,  and 
there  is  not  Ukely  to  be  again.  We  are 
too  much  in  need  of  each  other  not  to 
be  good  friends. 

Canada  has  an  enormous  amount  of 
forest,  while  ours  is  rapidly  disappearing. 
There  will  always  be  a  very  extensive 
demand  for  wood  for  building  purposes, 
furniture,  farm  implements, 
and  paper.  A  single  issue 
of  the  New  York  Sunday 
Times  sometimes  requires  as 
much  as  370  tons  of  news- 
print. One  ton  of  news- 
print requires  one  and  two 
fifths  cords  of  wood,  which 
is  about  one  fourth  as  much 
as  grows  on  one  acre  in  the 
forests  of  northern  New 
England  and  eastern  Can- 
ada. Knowing  these  facts, 
you  can  figure  out  how 
many  acres  of  such  forest 
one  issue  of  this  paper  may 
consume.  Canada  must  be 
a  great  source  of  supply  of 
wood  for  us. 

Canada  has  large  quan- 
tities  of  coal  in  Nova 
Scotia,  British  Columbia,  and  Alberta 
(Fig.  157),  though  she  lacks  it  in  On- 
tario and  Quebec.  Ontario,  however, 
has  rich  mines  of  iron  ore,  copper,  and 
nickel  north  of  the  Great  Lakes;  but 
without  coal  she  cannot  refine  the  ores. 


On  the  other  hand,  we  lack  coal  in  New 
England  and  in  the  Pacific  coast  states, 
while  we  have  enormous  quantities  of  it 
in  Pennsylvania  and  other  states  oppo- 
site Ontario.  How  admirably,  therefore, 
we  can  meet  each  other's  needs! 

Again,  Canada  is  engaged  mainly  in 
agriculture.  Montreal,  the  largest  city, 
and  Quebec  manufacture  lumber,  flour, 
shoes,  butter  and  cheese,  railroad  equip- 
ment, and  many  other  products.  Toronto 
and  Winnipeg  produce  meat,  flour,  and 
other  foodstuffs,  and  on  the  two  coasts 
fish  are  prepared  for  the  market;  but 
manufacturing  on  the  whole  is  not  exten- 


©  Ewing  Galloway 


Fig.  154. — In  the  Canadian  Rockies 
The  Rocky  Mountains  in  Canada  are  famous  for  their  scenery.    The  snow 
extends  farther  down  the  slopes  than  in  our  country,  and  there  are  many 
beautiful  lakes.    This  body  of  water  is  called  Lake  Louise. 

sive.  The  United  States,  however,  is 
becoming  so  great  a  manufacturing  nation 
that  it  must  import  much  food  and  must 
find  markets  in  other  countries  for  its 
manufactures.  Thus  in  a  third  way  we 
are  in  a  position  to  supply  each  other's 


160 


NORTH  AMERICA 


wants.  As  might  be  expected  from  these 
facts,  Canada  trades  more  with  us  than 
with  any  other  country. 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Serrire 

Fig.  155.  — ^  A  member  of  the  Royal  Northwest 
Mounted  Police 

These  men  preserve  order  and  protect  the  Uves  and 
property  of  people  in  northwestern  Canada,  where  there 
are  few  people.  They  often  travel  long  distances  to  catch 
criminals  or  to  save  lives. 

Not  only  is  the  settled  portion  of  Can- 
ada very  long  and  narrow,  but  the  people 
are  naturally  assembled  into 
groups  that  are  separated  from 
one  another.  Fig.  66  shows 
that  Maine  extends  so  far 
north  as  to  separate  the  three 
coast  provinces  from  Quebec.  A  vast 
forest  lies  between  the  settled  part  of 
Ontario  and  Manitoba;  and  the  Rockies 
form  a  lofty  wall  between  Alberta  and 
British  Columbia. 


How  the  dif- 
ferent parts 
of  Canada  are 
kept  in  close 
touch  with  one 
another 


What  holds  these  sections  together? 
One  thing  is  the  excellent  government. 
The  nine  provinces  form  a  union  called 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  which  is  a  part 
of  the  British  Empire.  Ottawa,  in  east- 
ern Ontario,  is  the  capital. 

The  principal  railroads  and  waterways 
extend  east  and  west  and  are  very  help- 
ful in  keeping    these    sections    in    close 
touch   with   one   another.     Canada   has 
more   miles   of  railroad,   considering  its 
population,   than  any  other  country  in 
the  world  except  Australia.    Three  of  its 
roads  extend  entirely  across  the  continent. 
Trace   them   from   coast   to    coast   and 
locate  the  leading  cities  upon  them  (Fig. 
i  157).    How  many  pass   through  Winni- 
I  peg?     Note  in  what  cities  they  end  on 
the   two  coasts.     The   largest   cities   in 
j  Canada  are  Montreal  and  Toronto.   How 
'  many    of    these   railroads    run   through 
them? 

A  great  deal  of  use  is  made  also  of  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
in  travel  and  commerce  east  and  west. 
Trace  the  course  of  goods  from  Fort 
William  or  Port  Arthur  on  Lake  Superior 
to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
(Fig.  157).  This  route  has  some  advan- 
tages over  our  own  from  Duluth  to  New 
York  City.    Can  you  suggest  how? 

Newfoundland  is  not  a  part  of  Canada, 
being  an  entirely  separate  colony  of 
Great  Britain.  Its  interests 
are  very  different  from  those 
of  most  of  Canada,  more  than 
one  fourth  of  its  entire  popu- 
lation being  engaged  in  fishing.  The 
coastal  and  nearby  waters  of  Newfound- 
land swarm  with  codfish;  a  good  share 
of  the  world's  supply  of  cod  comes  from 
that  vicinity.    There  has  been  consider- 


Why  New- 
foundland is 
separately 
mentioned 


MEXICO 


161 


able  discussion  of  a  union  with  Canada, 
but  the  step  has  not  yet  been  taken. 


1.  Compare  the  area  of  Canada  with 
that  of  the  United  States.  2.  Where  are 
Review  the  inhabitants 

questions  located?        3. 

Why  is  only  the  southern 
part  settled?  4.  Show  the 
similarity  in  products  of  our 
northern  states  and  Canada. 

5.  How  can  Canada  raise 
crops  so  similar  to  our  own 
when  it  lies  so  far  north? 

6.  State  some  reasons  for 
close  friendship  between 
Canada  and  the  United 
States.  7.  How  are  the 
different  parts  of  Canada 
kept  in  close  touch  with  one 
another?  8.  Why  is  New- 
foundland mentioned  sep- 
arately? 

1.  What    greater    diffi- 
culties have  the  Canadian 

railroads  in  winter  than  our 
railroads  have?  2.  If  you 
were  going  to  emigrate  to 
Canada,  what  section  would  you  choose? 
Why?      3.  On   Fig.    58,    trace    a  water 


route  north  of  the  mainland  of  Canada 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific 
oceans.  Why  cannot  such  a  route  be 
used?  4.  Compare  Fig.  157  with  Figs.  58 
and  146  to  see  what  parts  of  Canada  yon 


Suggestions 
for  extra 
work 


©  Publishera'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  156.  —A  store  in  the  Canadian  Northwest 
There  are  many  of  these  general  stores  in  the  northern  wilderness,  where 
trappers  and  Indians  trade.     How  many  kinds  of  wares  do  you  recognize? 

would  expect,  because  of  sufficient  rain- 
fall and  smoothness  of  surface,  to  make 
the  best  homes  for  large  numbers  of 
people.  Are  these  areas  near  the  section 
where  most  of   the   cities  are  located? 


2.    Mexico 


Plan  for  a 
short  visit  to 
Mexico 


If  you  were  planning  a  short  visit  to 
Mexico,  there  is  one  place  above  all 
others  that  you  would  want 
to  see;  that  is  Mexico  City. 
How  could  you  reach  it  by 
rail  from  where  you  live?  On  Fig.  59 
trace  the  all-rail  route  that  you  might 
take.  If  you  went  from  New  York  by 
boat,  you  would  probably  land  at  Vera 


Cruz  on  the  Gulf  coast.  Find  this  port 
(Fig.  158).  Quite  possibly  your  vessel 
would  stop  at  Havana  on  the  way.  Trace 
this  route. 

At  Vera  Cruz  you  would  probably  feel 
very  uncomfortable,  no  matter  what 
time  of  the  year  you  aj-rived,  for  it  lies 
well  within  the  tropics  and  is  on  a  low- 
land.     Every    day,    therefore,    is    hot. 


164 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Estimate  its  distance  south  of  the  tropic 
of  Cancer,  the  northern  border  of  the 
tropics  (Fig.  59). 

You  would  not  care  to  stop  here  long, 
because  it  is  unhealthful  as  well  as  hot. 
The  distance  by  rail  from  Vera  Cruz  to 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  159.  — Mexico  City 
What  signs  do  you  see  of  a  style  of  building  unlike  ours? 


Mexico  City  is  a  little  more  than  250 
miles.  On  leaving  Vera  Cruz  the  road 
first  crosses  a  low  plain  where  the  rainfall 
is  heavy,  vegetation  is  rank,  and  insects 
are  abundant.  Then  the  road  begins  to 
ascend;  it  has  to  climb  8,300  feet  above 
sea  level  before  it  comes  down  into  the 
valley  of  Mexico  City.  How  much  more 
than  a  mile  is  that?  How  would  you 
expect  the  vegetation  and  the  scenery  to 
change  as  you  ascended? 

Mexico  City  is  a  very  interesting  and 
attractive  city.  Its  parks,  drives,  and 
public  buildings  are  especially  beauti- 
ful, and  its  scenery  can  hardly  be  sur- 
passed.    In  the  distance  are  mountains 


that  entirely  surround  it.  The  volcanic 
mountains,  Popocatepetl  (Fig.  162)  and 
others  about  forty  miles  away,  can  be 
seen  plainly,  with  their  wooded  slopes 
and  snow-covered  peaks. 

One  object  of  special  interest  would 
be  the  drainage  system  of 
the  city.  The  city  is  located 
in  the  bottom  of  a  bowl- 
shaped  basin;  formerly 
water  from  the  surround- 
ing mountains  sometimes 
flooded  its  streets  for  weeks. 
On  one  occasion  30,000  per- 
sons were  drowned,  and  the 
place  was  for  a  long  time 
unhealthful  on  account  of 
the  dampness.  In  1900  a 
canal  thirty  miles  long  was 
completed  to  lead  away  the 
waste  waters.  There  are 
many  other  objects  of  inter- 
est in  the  vicinity,  such,  for 
example,  as  old-style  build- 
ings in  the  city,  lakes  in  the 
surrounding  territory,  and 
other  cities  not  far  distant.  This  country 
formerly  belonged  to  Spain;  and  Spanish 
is  still  the  chief  language.  There  are 
many  sights  and  customs  in  Mexico  that 
would  seem  strange  to  us. 

Mexico  enjoys  three  great  advantages. 
The  first  is  the  delightful  temperature  in 
a  large  part  of  the  country. 
Mexico  City  is  located  in  a 
valley  on  the  plateau  at  an 
elevation  of  more  than  7,000 
feet  above  the  sea  (Fig.  159). 
Although  the  plateau  decreas- 
es in  altitude  toward  the  north,  Fig.  58 
shows  what  a  large  area  is  at  least  5,000 
feet  above  sea  level.   Even  though  much 


Advantages 
that  Mexico 
enjoys 

1.  The  attrac- 
tion of  its 
climate 


MEXICO 


105 


of  this  area  is  in  the  tropics,  the  tropical 
heat  is  not  felt  here.  The  temperature  of 
Mexico  City  and  the  surrounding  region 
is  like  that  of  late  spring  in  most  of 
the  United  States.  The  attractiveness  of 
this  section  is  suggested  by  the  great 
number  of  its  inhabitants,  for  it  is  the 
most  densely  settled  part  of  Mexico. 

The  second  advantage  concerns  the 
variety  of  farm  products.  The  rainfall 
2.  Its  great  ^^  heavy  in  the  south,  but 
variety  of  farm    decreascs   toward    the   north 

products  •!        1 

until  the  part  next  to  the 
United  States  is  as  dry  as  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  With  such  a  variety  of 
temperature  and  rainfall,  Mexico  grows 
about  all  the  kinds  of  plants 
found  between  the  equator 
and  the  pole.  On  the  hot 
and  damp  coastal  plains  rice, 
rubber  trees,  sugar  cane, 
bananas,  and  other  tropical 
fruits  and  trees  flourish.  On 
the  slopes  leading  up  to  the 
plateau  are  coffee,  cotton, 
tobacco,  and  other  semi- 
tropical  products.  On  the 
plateau  itself  are  corn, 
wheat,  beans,  and  other 
products  of  the  temperate 
zone.  On  the  low,  level  land 
in  Yucatan  one  of  the  most 
important  plants  is  sisal, 
from  which  binding  twine  is 
made.  We  use  large 
amounts  of  such  twine  for 
binding  wheat  and  oats.  In  Yucatan  and 
the  arid  northwest  as  many  as  30,000 
cattle  sometimes  graze  on  a  single  ranch. 
The  variety  and  abundance  of  minerals 
give  Mexico  its  third  great  advantage. 
It  has  pi-oduced  more  silver   than  any 


3.  Its  variety 
and  abundance 
of  minerals 


other  country  in  the  world,  and  still  leads 
in  the  yearly  output.  Its  gold,  also,  is 
abundant;  and  it  has  large 
deposits  of  copper,  iron,  lead, 
quicksilver,  and  other  miner- 
als. Its  oil  wells  are  among  the  most 
productive  in  the  world.  Vessels  sail 
almost  every  day  from  the  ports  of 
Tampico  and  Tuxpam  (Fig.  158)  with 
oil  for  the  United  States  or  Europe. 

Thousands  of  our  citizens  have  been 
attracted  to  Mexico  by  opportunities  for 
business.  They  have  invested  our  interest  in 
extensively  in  cattle  ranches  the  Mexican 

,1  -1  .1  , .  government 

in  the  and  northern  section; 

in    oil    wells    on    the    Gulf    coast;     in 


^  Kcy.stono  \  itw  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  160.  — Sisal  in  Yucatan 

What  plant  that  you  sometimes  see  in  the  United  States  does  this  plant 
suggest? 

mines  in  the  interior;  in  railroads;  and 
in  rubber,  sugar,  and  coffee  plantations. 
But  in  recent  years  there  has  been  much 
disorder.  Battles  have  been  fought  in 
many  parts  of  the  country.  Small  bands 
of  ruffians  have  wandered  about,  robbing 


166 


NORTH  AMERICA 


and  killing  helpless  travelers,  attacking 
towns,  looting  homes  and  stores,  and 
wrecking  trains.  During  these  disorders 
our  citizens  have  suffered  severely.  Much 
of  their  property  has  been  stolen  or 
destroyed;  and  hundreds  of  them  have 


1.  Extent  of  the 
country  and 
character  of  its 
surface 


I'hdtii  hi/  Ehin  r,l.-,-/     r)  Ewing  OaUotoay 

Fig.  161. — A  Mexican  family 
Of  what  does  their  house  appear  to  be  made? 

been   killed   or  forced   to  flee  for  their 
lives. 

The  trouble  has  extended  even  across 
our  boundary.  That  line  is  more  than 
1,800  miles  long,  less  than  one  half  of 
which  is  formed  by  the  Rio  Grande 
(Fig.  59).  This  river  looks  like  a  large 
one  on  Fig.  58;  but  it  flows  through  so 
arid  a  country  and  loses  so  much  v/ater 
for  irrigation  in  its  upper  course  that  its 
lower  part  is  almost  dry  in  summer.  It 
is  as  easy  to  cross  the  Mexican  boundary, 
therefore,  as  much  of  our  Canadian 
boundary  (p.  159).  Until  the  government 
of  Mexico  became  stronger  in  1920,  rov- 


ing bands  of  Mexicans  frequently  did  so. 
They  drove  off  horses  and  cattle,  burned 
houses,  and  attacked  towns.  Note  how 
many  of  our  towns  are  close  to  the 
border.     Name  some  of  them. 

Mexico  is  a  large  country,  having  about 

one  fourth  the  area  of  the 

United   States. 

_      ,       .  .  Why  Mexico 

Much  of  its  SUr-  is  a  difficult 

face,  too,    is  ^^^^^^° 

govern 

rough.  The  low- 
land  along    the 
coast    and     in 
the  peninsula  of 
Yucatan  is  level;   but  the 
rest  is  a  vast  plateau  with 
many  mountains    upon    it 
which  divide  it  into  sections 
that   cannot   easily  com- 
municate with  one  another. 
Railroads    are    hard    to 
build  in  such  a  region  and 
there  are  few  of 
them.  There  are 
about  16,000  miles  of  rail- 
road, which    is    only    one 
fourth  the  average  for  the 
same  area  in  the  United  States.      Good 
wagon  roads  are  also  uncommon.    A  few 
years  ago  a  journey  from  Vera  Cruz,  the 
principal    port    on   the    Gulf    coast,    to 
Acapulco,  300  miles  away  on  the  west 
coast,  was  made  most  easily  by  going  to 
New  York  by  boat,  crossing  the  United 
States  to  San  Francisco,  and  then  going 
south  by  boat.      Most  sections  are  no 
better  off  for  roads  now  than  they  were 
then.     Trails   take   the  place  of  roads, 
and  the  burro  is  the  principal  carrier. 

Such  a  country  is  bound  to  be  difficult 
to  govern;  for  when  great  numbers  of 
people  in  so  large  an  area  are  so  com- 


2.  Lack  of  roads 


MEXICO 


167 


pletely  separated  from  one  another,  there 
can  be  little  acquaintance  or  friendship 
,  ,  ,   among  them,  and  misunder- 

3.  Ignorance  of  ^  ^  _ 

the  mass  of  the  standings  easily  arise  that  lead 
to  war.  Only  a  very  strong 
government  can  preserve  order.  The 
mass  of  the  people,  however,  are  too 
ignorant  to  make  a  strong  government 
possible.  Less  than  one  person  in  five 
is  white,  the  others  being  Indians  and 
persons  of  mixed  blood.  The  whites  are 
usually  well  educated,  but  most  of  the 
others  are  unable  to  read  or  write;  they 
have  little  skill  or  energy  in  work  and 
little  ambition  to  improve  themselves,  and 
they  are  very  superstitious. 
It  is  easy  for  unprincipled 
leaders  to  win  their  support 
for  any  sort  of  violence. 
In  consequence,  the  govern- 
ment has  been  very  weak. 
There  has,  however,  been  a 
great  improvement  in  this 
respect  since  1920. 


for  extra 
work 


1.  The  rivers  of  Mexico  are  short  and 
of  little  use  for  transportation.  Why? 
2.  What  do  you  imagine  to  suggestions 
be  the  difficulties  in  travel- 
ing overland  from  Vera  Cruz 
to  Acapulco?  3.  The  country  south  of 
our  boundary  is  arid.  Does  that  favor  or 
hinder  the  success  of  sudden  raids  from 
the  Mexican  side?  4.  Describe  some  of 
the  views  you  would  expect  if  you  as- 
cended Popocatepetl  to  the  top.  5.  Are 
there  as  strong  reasons  for  friendship 
between  the  United  States  and  Mexico 
as  there  are  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada?     Why? 


1.  Show  how  you  could 
reach  Mexico  City  from 
Review  where  you  live, 

questions         2.      Describe 

some  of  the  scenes  on  the 
route  and  in  Mexico  City. 
3.  In  what  way  is  the 
climate  attractive  on  the 
plateau?  How  can  it  be  so 
pleasant  in  the  tropics?  4. 
Why  has  Mexico  a  great 
variety  of  farm  products; 
and  what  are  the  principal 
crops?  5.  What  minerals 
does  it  produce?  6.  How 
has  it  caused  us  much 
trouble? 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  162.  —  A  country  scene  in  Mexico 
Popocatepetl  is  seen  on  the  right.  What  do  you  see  in  this  picture  that  is 
shown  also  in  Fig.  20?    What  are  the  signs  that  this  is  a  dry  or  arid  region? 


168 


NORTH  AMERICA 


3.    Central  America  and  the  West  Indies 


Even  though  one  sails  south  from  New 
York  toward  the  West  Indies  and  Cen- 
Attractions  of  ^I'^l  America  in  January,  the 
this  region  to  third  moming  out  is  hkely  to 
bring  warm  weather.  Then 
one  puts  on  the  lightest 
summer  clothing,  the  only  kind  he  needs 
until  his  return.  At  Colon,  on  the 
coast  of  Panama,  70  degrees  is  considered 


travelers 

1.  The  climate 


Fig.  163.  —Loading  a  steamer  with  bananas,  Kingston 


a  low  temperature  and  95  degrees  very 
hot.  This  gives  a  range  of  about  25 
degrees  during  the  year,  and  represents 
very  well  the  temperature  conditions  on 
the  lowlands  throughout  Central  Amer- 
ica and  the  West  Indies;  for  all  of  these 
countries  lie  fully  within  the  tropics. 
Their  highland  areas  are,  of  course,  con- 
siderably cooler.  How  would  you  like 
that  kind  of  climate?  Many  of  our 
people  are  attracted  by  it  and  go  to  the 
tropics  for  the  winter  on  that  account. 


The  growing  crops  are  of  great  interest 
to  the  traveler;  for  example,  the  bananas, 
coconuts,  coffee,  and  rubber.  2.  The  farm 
Sugar  cane,  tobacco,  and  P'^^^^ts 
many  kinds  of  vegetables  are  also 
raised  in  most  parts  of  this  large  region. 
Jamaica  produces  great  quantities  of 
bananas;  Costa  Rica  is  especially 
noted  for  bananas  and  coffee;  and  Cuba 

for  sugar.     Locate  each  of 

these  countries  (Fig.  158). 
The    appearance    and 

customs  of  the  people  are 

as    unlike    our 

3.  The  people 

own  as  their 
fruits  and  vegetables. 
Some  of  the  people  are  well 
educated,  however,  with 
homes,  dress,  and  customs 
much  like  ours.  These  are 
mostly  whites.  In  most 
of  Central  America  and 
in  several  of  the  islands 
Spanish  is  spoken,  as  in 
Mexico;  in  other  islands 
the  language  is  English  or 
French  or  Dutch. 
The  inhabitants  of  the 
West  Indies  understand  better  than 
those  of  the  mainland  how  to  entertain 
foreigners,  and  their  roads  are  better  for 
touring.  Largely  for  such  reasons,  trav- 
elers from  the  United  States  have  been 
more  attracted  to  the  islands  than  to 
Central  America.  The  most  important 
winter  resorts  are  Havana  in  Cuba, 
Kingston  in  Jamaica,  San  Juan  in  Porto 
Rico,  and  Nassau  in  the  Bahamas  (Fig. 
165).  Locate  each  of  these  islands  and 
cities  on  Fig.  158. 


©  Vnrlerirood  and  Undcnrood 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  AND  TITE  WEST  INDIES 


169 


While  there  are  well  edu- 
cated and  i^rosperous  people 
in  all  these  countries,  many 
of  them  have  little  educa- 
tion and  would  seem  to  us 
very  poor.  In  Jamaica,  for 
example,  the  homes  of  the 
natives  are  the  simplest 
huts,  having  usually  only 
one  or  two  small  rooms,  a 
dirt  floor,  no  chimney,  and 
scarcely  any  furniture,  not 
even  a  stove.  The  chief  use 
of  their  houses  is  protection 
from  the  sun  and  rain, 
though  the  roof  may  leak 
in  the  wet  season,  and  the 
floor  become  muddy.  Men 
and  women  possess  very 
little  clothing,  and  use  but  little  money. 
Many  Uving  about  Kingston  supply  fruit 
and  vegetables  to  the  city.  They  gen- 
erally carry  their  produce  to  market  in 


©  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Fig.  164.  —  Selling  fruit  and  poviltry  in  Havana 
This  is  what  one  would  see  in  many  of  the  cities  of  Cuba.   Can  you  name 
the  kind  of  fruit  this  man  has  to  sell?    Is  the  poultry  dressed  or  alive? 


©  PvbUxhers'  Photo  Seriire 

Fig.  165.  —  Avenue  of  palms,  Nassau 

baskets  on  their  heads,  walking  both 
ways,  even  though  they  live  ten  or  fifteen 
miles  out  in  the  country.  They  start  by 
midnight  or  earlier  with  a  few  coconuts, 
bananas,  short  stalks  of 
sugar  cane,  a  live  hen  or 
goose,  or  other  articles, 
weighing  in  all  from  twenty 
to  fifty  pounds.  They  spend 
the  morning  at  the  market 
selling  their  wares  and  then 
return  with  perhaps  twenty- 
five  or  fifty  cents  in  their 
pockets. 

Cuba  is  the  most  pros- 
perous and  the  most  highly 

developed     of         importance 

these  countries.  °^  ^"^* 
Its  people  are  largely  of 
Spanish  descent.  Many  of 
these  Spanish  families  have 
been  in  Cuba  for  several 
hundred  years.    The  island 


170 


NORTH  AMERICA 


has  valuable  deposits  of  iron  ore  and 
other  minerals  and  its  farms  produce 
sugar  cane,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  hemp. 
It  is  one  of  the  greatest  sugar-producing 
regions  of  the  world.  Estimate  the  dis- 
tance of  Havana  from  the  southern  tip 
of  Florida. 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Ewing  Galhyway 

Fig.  166.  —  Mt.  Pel6e,  from  the  water 

To  many  of  us  the  steady  heat  of  these 
countries  would  seem  a  great  hardship. 
Though  the  thermometer  does 
not  go  so  high  as  it  sometimes 
does  with  us,  there  is  no  relief 
from  the  heat  day  or  night 
throughout  the  year.  There 
are  far  worse  hardships,  how- 
ever, than  the  heat.  The  most  common 
winds  blow  from  the  northeast  and  bring 
much  rain,  especially  to  the  north  and 
east  coasts.  Now  and  then  they  cause 
serious  floods;  and  sometimes  there  is  a 


Hardships 
that  these 
countries 
suffer 

1.  From  the 
climate 


drought  that  is  just  as  bad.  In  addition, 
destructive  hurricanes  are  frequent. 
Farming  is,  therefore,  less  certain  here 
than  in  the  United  States. 

Earthquakes  and  eruptions  of  volcanoes 
have  often  caused  great  damage.  For 
example,  San  Salvador  (Fig. 

•^     '  .      ,      2.  From  earth- 

158),  the  capital      quakes  and 
.,  p  ri    ^         T  volcanoes 

city  01  Salvador, 
which  has  been  destroyed  so 
many  times  by  earthquakes 
that  its  site  was  changed. 
In  1902  one  of  the  most 
terrible  eruptions  ever  re- 
corded occurred  in  the  island 
of  Martinique,  in  the  lesser 
Antilles.  After  being  quiet 
for  about  fifty  years,  Mont 
Pelee  (Fig.  166)  suddenly 
burst  forth  and  completely 
destroyed  the  beautiful  city 
of  St.  Pierre  at  its  foot.  In 
a  few  minutes  all  its  25,000 
inhabitants  were  kiUed  by 
the  steam,  gases,  and  hot 
ashes  that  descended  upon 
them.  Locate  this  island. 
More  recently  Guatemala 
City  was  almost  entirely 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  Partly  on 
account  of  earthquakes,  buildings  in  this 
region  are  seldom  over  two  or  three  stories 
in  height. 

Another  serious  danger  is  that  of 
disease,  particularly  of  fever  and  other 
ailments  common  in  the  hot  3.  From  diseases 
and  undrained  lowlands.  The  "'^  ^^  ^o-^^^as 
lands  along  the  coast  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea  in  Central  America  are  very  fertile 
and  could  produce  vast  quantities  of 
food,  but  the  people  fear  them  as  they 
do  the  plague.    They  avoid  the  eastern 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  AND  THE  WEST  INDIES 


171 


4.  From 
revolutions 


coast  in  all  these  countries ;  as  in  Mexico, 
they  make  their  homes  on  the  highlands, 
which  are  well  toward  the  west.  They 
therefore  lose  the  use  of  much  of  their 
best  soil.  The  islands  suffer  in  the  same 
way.  Sanitary  measures  must  be  taken 
in  all  these  sections  before  their  full 
value  to  man  can  be  enjoyed. 

Revolutions  are  as  common  in  some  of 
these  countries  as  earthquakes,  and  are 
fully  as  destructive.  All  the 
Central  American  countries, 
except  British  Honduras,  are  republics. 
Name  them.  Cuba  also  is  a  republic,  and 
the  island  of  Haiti  is  divided  into  two 
republics,  Haiti  in  the  west 
and  the  Dominican  Repub- 
lic in  the  east.  But,  owing 
largely  to  the  ignorance  of 
the  people  in  these  repub- 
lics, an  ambitious  leader 
bent  on  rebellion  can  often 
find  followers,  so  the  gov- 
ernment may  be  overturned 
at  any  time.  These  revo- 
lutions result  not  only  in 
loss  of  Ufe  and  property, 
but  in  general  unrest  and 
disorder  that  check  progess. 
Foreigners  have  been  of 
much  help  in  overcoming 
some  of  these 
difficulties.  Brit- 
ish Honduras  on 
the  mainland, 
Jamaica,  Trinidad,  and  sev- 
eral of  the  smaller  islands  are 
British  possessions  (Fig.  158).  These 
have  been  free  from  disorders,  and  on 
most  of  them  attention  has  been  given  to 
farming,  road  building,  and  sanitary 
measures,  so  that  the  people  are  fairly 


prosperous  and  happy.  Trinidad  is  the 
island  from  which  most  of  the  asphalt  for 
our  streets  is  obtained. 

The  country  that  exerts  the  greatest 
influence  here,  however,  is  the  United 
States,  though  our  possessions  ^  influence  of 
have    a    smaller    total    area    the  united 

Stfltes 

than  those  of  the  British. 
Porto  Rico  is  under  our  control  (p.  147), 
as  are  also  several  of  the  Virgin  Islands 
just  east  of  .it.  Cuba  is  under  our  pro- 
tection; it  is  not  a  dependency  of  ours, 
like  Porto  Rico,  but  relies  upon  our  gov- 
ernment for  assistance  in  preserving  order 
when  such  help  is  greatly  needed. 


How  foreign- 
ers have 
helped  these 
countries 

1.  Influence  of 
the  English 


.Ma 

©  Publish) r^:  Photo  Ser\ice 

Fig.  167.  —  The  market  square  in  Port  au  Prince,  Haiti 

Our  business  men,  as  well  as  our  gov- 
ernment, are  doing  great  services  to 
these  countries.     Here    and 

.1  .  11  i     1        3.  Benefits 

there  is  one  who  has  estab-  brought  about  by 
lished  a  coffee  plantation  or  a  l^f^r^y 
cattle  ranch  or  a  fruit  farm; 
but    the    work    of    the    United .  Fruit 


172 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Company  is  on  a  grander  scale  and  sug- 
gests how  extensively  these  lands  may  be 
improved. 

The  lands  held  by  this  company  are 
almost  entirely  lowlands,  many  of  them 

^,  ,  on  and  near  the  eastern  coast, 

z.  The  farm- 
lands held  by  which  the  natives  have  long 
this  company  ^volded.  Some  of  it  is  moun- 
tainous, but  most  of  the  land  can  be 
cultivated.  It  is  rapidly  being  cleared 
and  put  to  use.  The  principal  crop  is 
h.  The  uses  it     bauauas.     Sugar  cane  is  the 

makes  of  these       pj-QfJug^     ^^xt    lu    ImportaUCe. 

Other  products  are  coconuts,  cocoa, 
oranges,  and  rubber. 


Photo  by  Elmendorf   ©Evnng  Galloway 

Fig.  168.  — Main  Street  in  St.  Thomas 
St,  Thomas,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  is  the  chief  town  of  the 
Virgin  Islands.   Until  recently  its  name  was  Charlotte  Amalie.  These  islands 
were  purchased  by  the  United  States  from  Denmark  in  1917. 


The  company's  land  extends  up  the 
valleys  from  the  coast,  often  for  a  dis- 
tance of  fifty  miles  or  more,  and  hundreds 
of  miles  of  wagon  roads,  tramways,  and 
railroads  for  transporting  men  and  mate- 
rials have  had  to  be  built. 


Even  before  our  government  obtained 
control  of  the  Canal  Zone  in  1903,  this 
company  had  begun  to  carry  out  the 
strictest  sanitary  rules,  taking  such  meas- 
ures as  the  government  took  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Canal.  Recall  several  of 
them  (p.  148). 

The  company  does  more  than  till  the 
soil;  it  transports  its  products  to  many 
countries,   and  for  this  pur- 
pose it  owns  or  controls  sev-    portationof 
eral  scores  of  ships.  goods  and  pas. 

sengers 

Until  this  company  was 
formed,  in  1899,  there  were  scarcely  any 
good  deep-water  harbors  on  the  east 
coast  of  Central  America; 
now  there  are  a  half  dozen, 
made  by  this  company, 
and  others  have  been  im- 
proved in  regions  where 
it  has  interests.  The  ves- 
sels carry  their  products  to 
Galveston,  New  Orleans, 
Mobile,  Charleston,  Balti- 
more, Philadelphia,  New 
York,  and  Boston.  Locate 
these  cities  and  trace  the 
routes  (Fig.  315).  The  chief 
cargo  is  bananas,  a  single 
ship  often  containing  40,000 
or  50,000  bunches.  The 
principal  port  for  this  fruit 
is  New  Orleans.  Can  you 
suggest  why?  New  York 
ranks  next. 

In  spite  of  its  extensive 
the  company  raises  fewer 
bananas  than  it  wants;  so  it  buys  exten- 
sively from  independent  farmers.  The 
company  also  does  a  general  freight  and 
passenger  business,  carrying  thousands  of 
passengers  to  and  from  the  tropics  yearly. 


production. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  AND  THE  WEST  INDIES 


173 


d.  Its  influence 


All  together  this  company  has  spent 
about  $200,000,000  in  the  tropics,  and 
it  now  employs  about  60,000 
men.  There  are  other  excel- 
lent farmlands  in  these  countries  that 
have  never  been  properly  cultivated. 
This  company's  example  is 
an  encouragement  to  the 
natives  and  others  to  under- 
take their  cultivation.  Its 
many  excellent  roads  must 
lead  to  more  road  building; 
its  provisions  for  sanitation 
to  more  extensive  provisions 
of  the  same  kind.  Do  you 
see  other  good  results  from 
its  work?  Do  you  think  it 
would  have  any  influence  in 
discouraging  revolutions? 


the  United  States  in  this  area?  Locate 
them.  14.  What  kind  of  land  has  been 
selected  by  the  United  Fruit  Company, 
and  on  which  coast  is  that  in  Central 
America  located?  15.  Tell  about  its 
transportation  of  goods  and  people  abroad. 


1.  What  temperatures 
can  be  expected  in  these 
Review  tropical    coun- 

questions  ^^^3?       2.     HoW 

greatly  do  they  vary  in  the 
course  of  a  year?  3.  Name 
their  principal  agricultural  products. 
4.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  winter 
resorts.  5.  Why  has  Central  America  been 
less  popular  as  a  winter  resort  than  the 
islands?  6.  Describe  the  life  of  the  poorer 
people  in  Jamaica.  7.  What  pecuHar 
hardships  are  due  to  the  climate?  8.  Tell 
about  the  hardships  due  to  volcanic  erup- 
tions and  earthquakes.  9.  What  danger 
is  feared  from  the  lowlands,  and  where  is 
good  land  avoided  on  that  account?  10. 
What  is  the  form  of  government  in  most 
of  these  countries?  11.  Why  are  revolu- 
tions especially  common?  12.  What  sec- 
tions are  dependencies  of  the  British? 
Locate  each.    13.  What  possessions  has 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  169.  — Central  Park  in  Havana 
The  opera  house  is  seen  on  the  right. 

What  ports  in  the  United  States  do  its 
vessels  reach?  16.  Mention  some  ways  in 
which  its  work  is  helpful  to  these 
countries. 

1.  What  influence  does  the  United 
Fruit  Company  seem  to  you  to  have 
upon  the  relations  between  suggestions 
the  United  States  and  these  for  extra 
tropical  countries?  2.  Can 
you  name  other  uses  of  the  banana  beside 
that  of  food  in  the  raw  state?  3.  Can 
you  explain  why  a  dozen  bananas,  which 
are  very  perishable  fruit  and  must  be 
brought  by  fast  freight  1,000  miles  or 
more,  often  cost  less  than  a  dozen  apples 
raised  in  our  own  orchards? 


174 


NORTH   AMERICA 


This  book  tells  you  about  the  parts 
of  the  earth's  surface  with  which  you 
ought  to  be  acquainted.  Part 
study  of  what  you  should  learn  is 

™*P^  given   in   the   text.      Review 

what  you  have  already  learned  on  pp.  7, 
16,  19-20,  and  26  about  how  to  study  the 
text.  Other  facts  that  you  should  learn 
are  given  in  maps  and  pictures.  A  map, 
as  we  have  seen  (p.  34),  is  really  a 
picture  of  a  part  of  the  earth's  surface. 
For  that  reason,  it  tells  you  many  things 
that  it  would  be  very  hard  to  tell  you  in 
any  other  way.  Does  not  a  picture  of 
someone  that  you  know  tell  much  more 
than  you  can  tell  in  words?  Maps  ought, 
therefore,  to  be  studied  very  carefully. 

Whenever  you  come  to  a  new  map, 
you  should  try  to  imagine  how  the  part 
of  the  earth  that  it  represents  would  ap- 
pear if  you  could  look  down  upon  it  from 
a  great  height. 

Political  maps,  such  as  Fig.  46  or  Fig. 
59  or  Fig.  63,  tell  you  less  about  the 

1.  Political  appearance  of  the  country 
°"*P^  than  the  other  maps,  because 
each  color  on  such  a  map  represents  a 
country  or  a  state,  and  the  surface  of  one 
political  unit  may  look  much  like  that 
of  another  next  to  it.  In  studying  politi- 
cal maps,  therefore,  you  should  pay  close 
attention  to  the  size  and  shape  and  name 
of  each  country  or  state  that  is  shown. 

Physical  maps,  however,  like  Fig.  58  or 
Fig.  174,  or  combined  physical  and  politi- 

2.  Physical  cal  maps  like  Fig.  61  or  Fig. 
™*P^  66,  show  you  how  high  each 
part  of  the  land  is  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  In  studying  such  maps  you  should 
try  to  imagine  how  the  high  regions  and 
the  low  regions  would  appear.  In  this 
book,  brown  areas  are  high;   the  darker 


the  brown,  the  higher  the  land  they  repre- 
sent. Green  areas  are  low;  the  darker  the 
green,  the  lower  the  land  they  represent. 

In  studying  the  physical  maps,  the  re- 
lief maps,  like  Fig.  60  or  Fig.  62,  will  be 
a  great  help  to  you.  If  there  3.  Relief 
is  a  relief  map  that  shows  the  ""^^ 
same  part  of  the  earth's  surface  that  is 
shown  by  a  physical  map,  you  should  turn 
from  one  to  the  other  and  study  them 
together.  You  will  find  that  the  brown 
areas  really  look  higher  on  the  relief  maps, 
and  the  green  areas  lower.  Compare 
Fig.  58  with  Fig.  60.  Soon  you  wiU  be  so 
used  to  the  colors  that  you  will  not  need 
a  relief  map  to  make  the  green  areas  look 
low  or  the  brown  areas  high.  If  you  are 
studying  a  map,  such  as  Fig.  66,  that  has 
no  relief  map  corresponding  to  it,  you 
should  find  the  area  that  it  represents  on 
some  relief  map  that  you  have  already 
studied.  Find  on  Fig.  62  the  area  shown 
by  Fig.  66. 

When  you  first  look  at  a  map,  read  the 
names  in  large  type  but  do  not  try  to 
remember  them.  You  are  asked  to  refer 
to  them  so  often  in  reading  the  text  that 
by  the  time  you  have  finished  your  study 
of  the  text  you  will  remember  most  of 
them.  Just  as  you  review  sections  of  the 
text,  however,  you  ought  to  review  what 
you  have  learned  by  your  study  of  the 
maps.  The  questions  on  the  maps  in  this 
book  are  to  help  you  in  these  reviews. 


1.  What  continent  joins  North  America?     2. 
By  what  are  they  joined?     3.  What  two  large 
bodies  of  water  indent  North  Amer-         j^^p  ^^^^_ 
ica?  4.  Name  a  gulf  on  the  eastern         tions  on 
coast.   5.   Name  one  on  the  western         North 
coast.  6.  Name  a  gulf  that  hes  with- 
in a  gulf.   7.  Name  a  bay  that  hes  within  a  bay.  8. 
What  two  peninsulas  are  on  the  eastern  coast?    9. 


MAP   STUDIES 


175 


What  two  on  the  western?  10.  Name  the  Great 
Lakes  in  order  from  west  to  east.  11,  Where  is 
the  greatest  mountain  system  of  North  America? 
12.  Name  and  locate  four  mountain  chains  that 
are  parts  of  this  system.  13.  Where  is  the  second 
largest  mountain  system?  14.  What  can  you  say 
of  the  country  between  these  two  mountain  sys- 
tems? 15  What  and  where  is  the  greatest  river 
system  of  North  America?  16.  Trace  the  longest 
river.  17,  Name  the  countries  of  North  America. 
18.  Which  has  the  greatest  area?  19.  Name  the 
countries  that  lie  within  two  zones.  20.  Which  lie 
within  a  single  zone? 

21.  How  many  states  are  there  in  the  United 
States?  22.  Name  the  largest  state;  the  smallest. 
23.  Compare  the  sizes  of  the  states  in  the  western 
half  with  the  sizes  of  those  in  the  eastern 
half.  24.  What  states  border  on  the  Great  Lakes? 
25.  What  states  are  touched  by  the  Missouri 
River?  By  the  Mississippi  River?  26.  What 
state  lies  farthest  north?  South?  27.  What  state 
consists  of  two  distinct  parts? 

28.  Wliat  states  compose  the  group  known  as 
the  Northeastern  States?  29.  How  many  of  them 
have  seacoast?  30.  Name  the  states  that  border 
on  Lake  Erie;  on  Lake  Ontario.  31.  Where  is 
the  Erie  Barge  Canal?  32.  Where  is  Niagara 
Falls?  33.  Name  and  locate  five  rivers  in  these 
states.  34.  What  are  the  four  largest  cities  in  the 
Northeastern  States?  35.  Locate  Pittsburgh; 
Buffalo;  Washington;  Newark;  Providence.  36. 
Trace  the  principal  highway  from  Boston  to  Pitts- 
burgh and  name  the  principal  cities  through  which 
it  passes. 

37.  Name  the  states  of  the  North  Central 
group.  38.  Trace  a  highway  across  this  section 
from  Pittsburgh,  in  Pennsylvania,  to  Pueblo,  in 
Colorado.  39.  Name  the  principal  cities  and 
towns  through  which  this  highway  passes  and  the 
principal  rivers  which  it  crosses.  40.  Trace  high- 
ways from  Louisville  to  Kansas  City  and  to  Min- 
neapolis. 41 .  Measure  the  distances  traversed  on 
each  of  the  above  routes.  42.  Name  and  locate 
€he  four  largest  cities  in  the  North  Central  States. 

43.  Name  the  states  included  in  the  Southern 
section.  44.  Which  ones  border  on  the  Atlantic 
Ocean?  45.  Which  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico?  46. 
Which  on  the  Mississippi  River?  47.  Which 
on  the   Ohio   River?    48.  Into   which  states  of 


this  section  does  the  Appalachian  Highland 
extend?  49.  What  seaports  are  there  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  this  section?  50.  On  the  Gulf 
coast?  51.  Name  and  locate  the  three  largest 
cities  in  this  section.  52.  Beginning  at  Richmond 
in  Virginia,  and  using  the  highways  shown  on  the- 
map,  trace  an  automobile  route  that  would  carry 
you  into  every  state  of  this  section.  53.  Name  the 
rivers  you  would  cross  and  the  principal  cities 
through  which  you  would  pass.  54.  Locate  Nor- 
folk, Dallas,  San  Antonio,  Birmingham,  Nash- 
ville, Fort  Worth,  and  Houston. 

55.  Name  the  Western  States.  What  three 
border  on  Canada?  56.  WTiat  three  on  Mexico? 
57.  What  three  on  the  Pacific  Ocean?  58.  In  what 
states  are  there  any  lowlands?  59.  Locate  the 
following  mountains:  Mt.  Hood;  Mt.  Shasta; 
Pike's  Peak;  Mt.  Whitney;  Mt.  Rainier.  60. 
Name  and  locate  the  nine  National  Parks  in  these 
states.  61.  Locate  Denver,  Butte,  Spokane, 
Tacoma,  San  Diego,  Portland,  Sacramento,  and 
Oakland.  62.  Beginning  at  Denver,  trace  an 
automobile  tour  extending  through  at  least  nine 
of  these  states.  63.  Name  the  mountain  ranges 
and  the  rivers  that  the  route  crosses.  64.  Through 
what  cities  does  it  pass? 

65.  How  does  the  width  of  Canada  compare 
with  that  of  the  United  States?  66.  The  length? 
67.  Where  are  the  highlands  of  Canada?  68.  The 
lowlands?  69.  Give  a  reason  why  British  Colum- 
bia is  thinly  settled.  70.  Tell  why  Labrador  has 
so  few  people.  71.  Name  and  locate  the  two 
largest  cities  of  Canada.  72.  Where  is  Halifax; 
Ottawa;  Winnipeg;  Regina;  Edmonton;  Van- 
couver; Victoria?  73.  Why  are  there  no  large 
towns  near  Hudson  Bay?  Which  provinces  have 
the  most  railroads?  74.  About  how  wide  is  Alaska 
from  north  to  south?  75.  From  east  to  west?  76. 
How  does  Alaska  compare  in  area  with  the  State 
of  Texas?  77.  Where  does  the  Arctic  Circle  cross 
Alaska? 

78.  Locate  the  chief  highlands  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America.  79.  Name  two  peninsulas  in- 
cluded in  Mexico.  80.  What  waters  border  on 
Mexico  and  Central  America?  81.  Locate  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  82.  Where  is  the  Panama 
Canal?  83,  Name  and  locate  two  high  mountains 
in  Mexico.  84.  Are  the  principal  railways  of  Mex- 
ico on  the  highland  or  lowland? 


A'-j^r^^?^ 


'-  \'''M^- 


:d 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


REUEF  MAP 


uw  no  Ko  1000 


PROFii.K  OF  SOUTH  AMKRiCA    r!;';!^^  A*"'"""' 


».(«)(.«    ALONG  THE  PARALLEL  16°  S. 

10.000  <Mt  -^        h.TSU 


flt^tliAanm  <m>«ta<i » 


Fig.  170 


PART  III.    SOUTH    AMERICA 


There    are    many    reasons    why    one 

might  expect  South  America  to  have  as 

many   inhabitants   as   North 

rapid  TettL-     America.    One  reason  is  that 

ment  of  South  j^   closely  resembles   North 

America  might     ...  ^ 

have  been        America    m    many    respects, 
expected         'pj^g    ^^q    Continents    are    of 

1.  Resemblance  nearly  the  same  size,  and  of 
J^n^  the  same  general  shape.  Draw 

triangles  to  show  their  out- 
line. Each  has  vast  mountain  ranges  on 
the  western  side,  and  broad,  fertile  plains 
in  the  east.  Point  to  such  mountains 
and  plains  on  Fig.  174.  In  each  there  are 
large  navigable  rivers  reaching  into  the 
heart  of  the  continent.  Trace  the  three 
leading  rivers  of  each  continent  (Figs.  58 
and  174). 

In  some  respects  South  America  enjoys 
important  advantages  over  North  Amer- 
ica. No  part  of  South  America, 
except  the  mountain  peaks,  is 
very  cold;  but  a  large  part  of 
North  America,  Ijdng  in  and  near  the  frigid 
zone,  is  too  cold  for  farming.  Locate  the 
Arctic  circle  in  Fig.  58.  In  the  second 
place.  South  America  is  for  the  most  part 
well  watered.  In  Fig.  171  note  how  small 
are  the  arid  sections.  A  large  part  of 
North  America,  on  the  other  hand,  is  very 
dry  (Fig.  146).  Finally,  gold  and  silver 
were  discovered  in  South  America  hun- 
dreds of  years  earlier  than  in  North  Amer- 
ica. This  gave  an  early  start  to  immigra- 
tion to  that  continent. 

In  spite  of  these  facts.  South  America 
has  developed  less  rapidly  than  North 


2.  Advantages 
over  North 
America 


America.  One  of  the  most  important 
reasons  is  the  cUmate.  Note  where  the 
equator    and     the   tropic   of   ^ 

^^         .  ,  .  Reasons  for 

Capricorn  cross  the  continent,    slow  develop- 
About   how    much  of   South   ™®°* 
America,  therefore,  lies  in  the   i-  character  of 
torrid  zone?    Thus  it  is  seen 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  continent  is 
too  hot  for  the  white  man  to  work  to 


W  Greenwich     40" 


Wiiia.Eii(.Co.,N.r, 


Fig.  171. — Annual  rainfall  in  South  America 

How  does  the  area  of  heavy  rainfall  compare  with  that 
in  North  America? 

the  best  advantage.  How  does  South 
America  compare  in  this  respect  with 
North  America? 


177 


178 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


2.  The  lack  of 
coal 


3.  The  general 
lack  of  educa- 
tion 


A  second  reason  for  the  slow  develop- 
ment is  the  lack  of  coal.  Coal  is  not 
entirely  lacking,  but  the 
amount  is  not  great  nor  is 
much  of  it  mined.  No  region  ever  de- 
velops its  industries  extensively,  especial- 
ly manufacturing,  with- 
out coal.  Why  is  coal  so 
necessary? 

There  are  many  highly 
educated  people  in  South 
America,  but 
they  are  main- 
ly the  whites, 
who  are  outnumbered  by 
the  natives.  Spanish  is 
the  language  of  most  of 
these  countries,  but  Portu- 
guese is  spoken  in  Brazil. 
The  good  taste  of  the  ed- 
ucated people  and  their 
interest  in  progress  are 
shown  in  the  appearance 
of  many  of  the  cities,  with 
their  beautiful  buildings,  streets,  and 
parks.  Their  interest  in  independent  gov- 
ernment is  shown,  also,  in  the  fact  that 
all  the  South  American  nations  are  re- 
pubUcs  except  the  Guianas,  which  are 
colonies  belonging  to  three  countries  in 
Europe. 

More  than  three  fourths  of  all  the 
people,  however,  of  several  South  Ameri- 
can countries  are  Indians  and  people  of 
mixed  blood  (Fig.  172) ;  and  most  of  these 
can  neither  read  nor  write.  They  are  too 
ignorant  to  share  in  the  government,  or  to 
be  reliable  and  skillful  workmen.  It  is 
this  lack  of  education  of  the  common 
people  more,  perhaps,  than  the  climate 
or  the  lack  of  coal  that  has  hindered 
progress  in  South  America. 


A  trip  to 
South  Amer- 
ica 

1.  The  season 
to  choose,  and 
the  method  of 
travel 


Fig.  172. 


Americans  are  likely  to  visit  South 
America  much  more  in  the  future  than 
they  have  in  the  past.  Where 
should  one  go,  and  what 
should  one  see?  Following 
are  suggestions  for  a  trip 
that  might 
occup}^  six 
months.  Since  South 
America  is  mainly  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  win- 
ter comes  there  during  our 
summer,  and  we  should 
time  our  visit  so  as  to 
reach  Chile  and  Argentina, 
the  colder  part,  during 
their  summer.  We  ought 
therefore,  to  start  in  Oc- 
tober. 

Since  there  is  no  railroad 
connecting  the  two  con- 
tinents, we  go  by  boat. 
Indeed,  except  in  the 
southern  half  of  the  con- 
tinent, there  are  few  railroads  connecting 
the  countries  of  South  America  with  one 
another.  On  that  account  our  trip  will 
be  chiefly  by  boat. 

Starting  from  New  York  for  the  west- 
ern coast  of  South  America,  we  sail 
directly  for  Panama.    Six  or    ,  ^^ 

^  ^  2.  The  voyage 

seven  days  bring  us  to  the   toGuayaqmiin 
entrance  to  the  Canal.     How 
would  the  trip  from  New  Orleans  or  San 
Francisco  compare  with  this  in  length? 

At  the  port  of  Panama,  on  the  Pacific 
side  of  the  isthmus,  a  boat  may  be  ready 
to  take  us  south.  If  not,  we  wait  for  one. 
From  now  on  boats  going  our  way  are 
likely  to  be  a  week  or  so  apart,  and  if  we 
just  miss  one,  we  contentedly  wait  for 
the  next.     There  is  no  need  of  hurrying 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Half-breed  Indians 
in  Peru 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


179 


or  fretting  about  delays.  We  must  adopt 
the  customs  of  the  people;  and  they 
make  it  clear  that  time  is  not  valuable  to 
them.     How  do  you  suppose  they  do  it? 

Wliere  do  we  make  our  first  stop? 
Colombia  lies  on  our  left;  but  most  of  its 
coast  is  densely  forested  and 
it  has  no  important  port. 
If  we  come  near  enough,  we 
may  see  lighters  putting  off 
from  the  shore  to  an  ocean 
steamer  that  is  anchored  in 
deep  water,  laden  with  rub- 
ber, coconuts,  and  perhaps 
coffee,  cotton,  and  bananas. 

We  pass  on  to  Guayaquil 
in  Ecuador,  crossing  the 
equator  on  the  way.  On 
the  fourth  day  out  from 
Panama  we  reach  the  Gulf 
of  Guayaquil  and  steam 
forty  miles  up  the  river  to 
the  city  of  that  name. 

The  heat  is  one  of  the 
chief  topics  of  conversation. 
The  temperature  is  not  much  higher 
than  in  some  of  our  Southern  States  in 
summer;  but  it  rains  120  inches  there  in  a 
year,  and  the  hot  air  reeks  with  moisture. 

The  city  in  the  distance  looks  beautiful 
with  its  white,  marble-like  buildings. 
-   „       .        Buildings  are  usually  white  in 

•S*    Scenes  m  

and  about         the    tropics.     But    a    nearer 

Guayaquil  i       i      •  t  •     i 

approach  brings  disappoint- 
ment; for  what  seemed  to  be  marble  turns 
out  to  be  split  bamboo  plastered  with 
mud  and  whitewashed.  This  is  a  land  of 
earthquakes,  and  houses  of  this  sort  are 
little  damaged  by  them.  The  cracks  they 
cause  in  the  mud  can  easily  be  repaired. 
Although  Guayaquil  is  the  principal 
port  of  Ecuador,  and  has  a  population  of 


nearly  100,000,  it  is  a  wretched  looking 
place.  Both  the  streets  and  the  people 
seem  greatly  neglected.  Until  recently 
tropical  diseases  caused  great  havoc  here, 
and  vessels  stopping  at  this  city  were  in 
danger  of  being  placed  in  quarantine  on 


Courtesy  of  Son/  ■     !  lishing  Co. 

Fig.  1 73.^  Mount  Tunguragua,  Ecuador 
There  are  several  such  volcanic  cones  near  Quito. 


approaching  the  next  port.  That  danger 
is  now  largely  passed,  owing  to  efforts 
of  Americans  in  making  conditions  in 
Guayaquil  more  sanitary. 

Along  the  coast  of  Ecuador  and  in  this 
valley  are  extensive  and  very  fertile 
plains.  In  the  harbor  we  see  their  prod- 
ucts being  loaded  into  vessels  for  export; 
sugar,  bananas,  coconuts,  and  pine- 
apples. The  two  things  that  interest  us 
most  are  cacao  and  Panama  hats. 

The  trees  that  bear  the  long  pods 
filled  with  cacao  beans  grow  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  feet  high.  Plantations  of 
such  groves  are  worth  a  visit.  The  dried 
beans,  when  ground,  produce  chocolate, 
and  when  the  oil  is  pressed  out  of  the 


Fig.  174 


70° 


A-M  erica/'  a  "^-^^i^J-'    ^  "%.  I^IXCuc-Mfi/J 


^      T     L.    A      N    \T     I     C 


^      IfclMIDAD 


,,vo 


i.  O.M  CIA    I 


.1      .V 


Equator 


100" 


80      LougUude    70  WcH        bO         Aom        50     Greenwich  40 


Fig.   175 


182 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


chocolate   and   the   remainder  is   mixed 
with  starch,  we  have  cocoa. 

The  kind  of  fiber  or  straw  necessary 
for  Panama  hats  thrives  best  on  these 
low  coastal  plains,  and  the  hats  are 
manufactured  in  surrounding  towns.    It 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  176.  — A  cacao  plantation 
How  many  pods  can  you  find  here? 

would  be   interesting  to   observe   these 

workers  making  our  most  expensive  hats, 

some  of  which  sell  for  several  hundred 

dollars  each. 

The  people  in  these  tropical  countries 

largely    avoid    the    low    coastlands.     A 

4.  The  journey  joumey  to  Quito  will  bring 
to  Quito  j.gijgf  f  j.Qj^  tj^g  YiQ^^,  for  it  is 

located  on  a  plateau  9,500  feet  above 
sea  level.  How  much  does  that  lack  of 
being  two  miles?  The  railroad  running 
there  climbs  12,000  feet  over  the  moun- 


tains   before   it   comes   down   into   the 
valley  where  Quito  lies. 

Of  course  there  is  wonderful  scenery  on 
the  route  (Fig.  173).  What  are  some 
of  the  views  that  you  would  expect? 
The  changing  vegetation  and  farm  prod- 
ucts are  especially  interesting. 

Quito  is  nearly  as  large  as  Guayaquil, 
and  not  much  cleaner.  But  everything 
is  interesting  (Fig.  178) .  This  5.  in  and 
is  a  land  of  perpetual  spring,  about  Qmtj 
and  the  contrasts  are  surprising,  often 
wonderful.  In  one  field  the  Indians  may 
be  harvesting  ripe  grain,  while  in  one  ad- 
joining it  the  grain  is  green,  and  in  a  third 
they  may  be  plowing  and  sowing  for  future 
harvests.  In  the  same  orchard  there  may 
be  peach  trees  bearing  blossoms,  green 
fruit,  and  ripe  fruit.  Since  there  is  no 
change  of  seasons,  any  stage  of  growth 
may  be  reached  at  any  time. 

In  the  valley  everything  is  green;  but 
the  snow-capped  mountain  peaks  tower 
in  the  distance;  and  at  night  the  glow  of 
fire  in  the  crater  of  the  volcano  Cotopaxi 
can  be  seen.    Find  its  height  (Fig.  174). 

Would  you  like  to  take  an  automobile 
trip  or  a  drive  out  into  the  country?  This 
could  hardly  be  done  owing  to  lack  of 
roads;  in  fact,  there  are  hardly  any  roads 
at  all.  Even  in  the  city,  an  automobile 
is  almost  useless,  because  there  are  few 
blocks  where  it  can  run;  and  in  the 
country  there  are  only  bridle  paths. 

The  lack  of  roads  is  one  of  the  serious 
difficulties  in  South  America.  People  in 
Colombia  living  in  the  valley  of  the 
Magdalena  River  or  at  Bogota,  the  capi- 
tal, find  it  next  to  impossible  to  reach 
the  Pacific  coast  of  their  own  country  by 
land.  They  must  go  around  by  way  of 
the  Panama  Canal.   What  prevents  their 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


183 


going  across  countr}-,  even  though  there 
are  no  roads?   Examine  Fig.  174  to  see. 

We  stop  at  only  two  places  on  the 
coast  of  Peru.  The  first  is  Callao,  the 
,  „  .  ,    , .      port   of   Lima.     Callao  itself 

6.   Points  of  in-     ^ 

terestinPeru     is   of   little   interest;   for   the 
a.  What  one       low  coastlaud  uorth  and  soutli 

might  see  in  ^f     j^     f^j.     huudreds     of    mllcS 

and  about  Lima    . 

IS  and.  Some  sugar  cane,  cot- 
ton, and  rice  are  grown  by  irrigation. 
Lima  is  of  interest  as  the  capital  and 
largest  city  of  Peru,  and  also  as  the 
old  Spanish  capital  of  South  America. 
The  Spaniards  were  attracted  to  this 
region  by  the  gold  and  silver  mines,  and 
the  city  contains  many  buildings,  gar- 
dens, and  paintings  that  recall  the  Span- 
ish rule. 

What  we  care  most  to  see  is  the  rail- 
road leading  from  Callao  through  Lima 
to  Oroya  and  the  silver  and  copper  mines 
at  Cerro  de  Pasco  (Fig.  177) .  It  is  one  of 
the  highest  railways  in  the  world;  at  one 
point  it  reaches  an  altitude  of  15,600  feet. 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  177.  —  The  railroad  leading  from  Callao  through 
Lima  to  Oroya 
Locate  this  railroad  on  Fig.  175.     Does  this  appear  to 
be  a  dry  or  well-watered  region?    See  Fig.  171. 


©  Inter  national  Film  Service  Co.,  Inc. 


Fig.  178.— The  Theater  in  Quito 


How  does  this  compare  with 
the  height  of  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  United 
States  (Fig.  58)?  It  is 
quite  likely  that  the  change 
in  the  pressure  of  the  air  as 
you  reach  the  top  would 
make  you  dizzy.  At  times 
you  would  hold  your  breath 
in  fear,  too,  as  you  looked 
down  from  the  car  windows 
and  thought  what  would 
happen  if  the  train  left  the 
track. 

Returning  to  Callao  and 
steaming  on  for  a  few 
hundred  miles,  we  come  to 


184 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


MoUendo,  which  really  has  no  harbor  at 
all,  only  a  roadstead,  where  ocean  vessels 
are  met  by  lighters  from  the 
shore  for  loading  and  unload- 
ing goods  and  passengers.  Yet 
it  is  a  fair  example  of  most  of  the  ports 
of  South  America.    In  addition  to  sugar, 


6.  Why  a  stop 
at  MoUendo  is 
desirable 


©  E.  M.  Newman 

Fig.  179.  —  The  old  Inca  gate  at  Cuzco 

cotton,  and  copper,  which  are  shipped 
from  many  of  the  other  Pacific  ports, 
wool  and  tin  are  Ukely  to  be  seen  here. 
MoUendo  is  the  port  for  Arequipa,  a  great 
center  for  those  products.  The  tin  comes 
mainly  from  Bolivia,  which  mines  a  large 
part  of  the  world's  supply.  The  wool 
comes  from  the  sheep,  alpacas,  and  vicunas 
that  graze  in  this  plateau  country.  A 
visit  to  one  of  the  sheep  and  alpaca 
ranches  would  be  interesting. 

Two  other  places  of  interest  are  Cuzco 
and  Lake  Titicaca  (Fig.  175).    This  lake 


has  an  elevation  of  about  12,500  feet 
and  is  over  100  miles  long.  On  it  can  be 
seen  both  the  straw  boats  used  by  the 
Indians  and  modern  steamers. 

Cuzco  was  once  the  capital  city  of  the 
Incas,  the  Indians  who  ruled  here  at  the 
time  of  the  discovery  of  America.  Can 
you  explain  how  the  climate  and  even  the 
desert  coast  without  good  harbors  may 
have  influenced  them  to  choose  this  loca- 
tion? The  Inca  ruins  are  the  great  at- 
traction at  Cuzco  (Fig.  179).  Along  one 
street  are  the  remains  of  fourteen  of  their 
palaces. 

The  next  stop  along  the  coast  should 
be  either  at  Iquique  or  Antofagasta  in 
northern  Chile.   The  land  is  a 

1  1  K      j_    e  1  J         7-  Value  of  the 

desert;  Antofagasta  gets  barren  coast 
its  water  from  the  Andes  by  a  cm^^^™ 
pipe  hne  more  than  200  miles 
long.  The  water  costs  about  five  cents  a 
gallon.  Yet  this  most  barren  place  on  the 
earth  helps  to  produce  a  flourishing 
vegetation  in  many  other  countries;  for 
a  material  called  nitrate  of  soda,  which  is 
the  finest  kind  of  soil  fertihzer,  is  mined 
here  in  vast  quantities.  So  much  of  it  is 
sent  abroad  that  it  is  one  of  Chile's  prin- 
cipal sources  of  wealth.  The  importance 
of  the  industry  can  be  judged  from  the 
fact  that  of  the  71,000  miners  in  Chile 
in  a  recent  year,  44,000  were  engaged  in 
mining  nitrate  of  soda  (Fig.  180).  Our 
farmers  are  using  it  extensively.  Haye 
you  seen  any  of  it? 

Instead  of  going  back  to  the  boat  from 
the  nitrate  fields,  we  travel  south  to  Santi- 
ago by  rail.  Chile  is  a  more  ^  Attractionsof 
prosperous  country  than  any  the  central  vai- 
other  we  have  visited,  with 
better  educated  people,  and  the  accom- 
modations for  traveling  are  better. 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


185 


It  is  a  long  journey  from 
Antofagasta  to  Santiago. 
Estimate  the  distance  (Fig. 
175).  How  long  is  Chile 
itself?  How  wide,  on  the 
average? 

As  we  approach  Santiago, 
the  climate  and  farm  prod- 
ucts remind  one.  of  south- 
ern California.  That  city 
is  about  the  same  distance 
south  of  the  equator  as  Los 
Angeles  is  north  of  it.  Sho^^• 
that  this  is  true.  Irrigation 
is  necessary  here,  as  it  is 
there,  because,  as  in  Cali- 
fornia, the  rains  come  main- 
ly in  winter. 

The  city  is  located  in  the  central  valley 
of  Chile,  a  valley  nearly  700  miles  long 
but  averaging  only  about  thirty  miles  in 
width.    Most  of  the  Chileans  live  in  this 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Sernce 

Fig.  181.— The  National  Museum,  Santiago 
South  Americans  take  great  pride  in  their  beautiful  buildings.     The  large 
cities  of  Chile,  Argentina,  and  Brazil  are  among  the  most  beautiful  in  the  world. 


©  Publisliers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  180.  —  A  nitrate  factory,  Chile 
On  the  right  is  a  huge  pile  of  nitrate,  which  is  being  sacked  for  shipment. 

valley  because  of  its  fertile  soil  and  de- 
lightful climate.    Santiago,  mth  a  popu- 
ation    of    400,000,    is    located    near    its 
northern  end  (Fig.  181).    From  the  city 
the  mountains  can  be  seen 
on  both  the  east   and  the 
west.     All  about  are  fields 
of  wheat,  maize,  alfalfa,  and 
vegetables.  Vineyards,  also, 
are   plentiful.     A    railroad 
extends  along  the  valley  for 
its  entire  length. 

The  next  city  which  we 
shall  visit  is  Buenos  Aires, 
in  Argentina. 
How  shall  we 
travel  to  reach 
it?  The  old 
route  would 
probably  have  been  from 
Santiago  down  to  Valpar- 
aiso, its  port,  and  then  by 
boat  through  the  Strait  of 
Magellan  or  around   Cape 


9.  The  journey 
from  Valparaiso 
to  Buenos  Aires 


a.  The  route 
selected 


186 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Horn.  But  that  is  a  very  long  voyage, 
both  dismal  and  dangerous.  Southward 
from  Valparaiso  it  rains  more  and  more, 
until  in  southern  Chile  it  rains  almost 
constantly.  The  severe  storms  in  the 
Strait  of  Magellan  and  about  Cape  Horn 
also  make  navigation  very  dangerous. 


)  Pvblishera'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  182. — The  Trans-Andean  Railway 
The  train  is  standing  at  a  station  in  the  foothills  of  the  Andes. 

Since  1910  it  has  been  unnecessary  to 
take  this  long  voyage,  for  in  that  year  a 
railroad  was  completed  from  Valparaiso 
to  Buenos  Aires.  This  transcontinental 
road  (Fig.  182)  and  the  Panama  Canal 
together  have  made  the  southern  end  of 
the  continent  much  less  important  than 
formerly.  Now  many  boats  that  come 
south  through  the  Canal  end  their  voy- 
age at  Valparaiso  and  start  north  again. 
Punta  Arenas,  the  southernmost  city  in 
the  world,  located  on  the  Strait  of 
Magellan,  suffers  in  consequence.  Why? 
Valparaiso,  however,  gains.  The  fact 
that  many  passengers  bound  for  Argen- 


tina come  directly  to  Valparaiso  and  then 
take  the  railroad,  makes  that  port  espe- 
cially important,  although  the  harbor  is 
very  poor. 

It  is  a  fifty-hour  trip  from  Valparaiso 
to  Buenos  Aires.    Estimate  the  distance 
and  the  rate  of  travel  per  hour.   What  is 
the   distance    through  the 
Strait  of  Magellan  by  boat? 
The  views  are  magnificent 
as  one  ascends  the  moun- 
tains  and    looks   ,  Experiences 
back      into      the    <"*  ^^  mountain 

central     valley.  •^'""'^^^ 

The  highest  altitude  reached 

is  about  12,000  feet,  where 

a    tunnel,    completed    by 

Americans,    leads    through 

the  mountains  toward  Men- 

doza,    in    Argentina    (Fig. 

175).     Note   how   near   at 

hand  is  Mount  Aconcagua, 

the   highest    peak    in    the 

western  hemisphere.    What 

is  its  height?    Why  would 

you  expect  glaciers  there? 

There  may  be  delays  on 

this  journey,  for  we  are  well  within  the 

temperate  zone,  and  the  train  is  likely  to 

be  snowed  in;  or  avalanches  may  block 

the  way.    On  account  of  such  difficulties 

the  road  loses  part  of  its  value. 

We  come  now  into  Argentina,  often 
called  the  United  States  of  South  Amer- 
ica. Chile  was  found  to  be  ,_  impressions 
much  like  California.     Note    east  of  the 

,  1         1        A  i  •  mountains 

how^  closely  Argentina  resem- 
bles our  states  just  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

At  Mendoza  there  are  vineyards  every- 
where.    This  is  an  arid  region,   having 


only  about  six  inches  of  rain  per  year 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


187 


(Fig.  171),  but  the  lofty  mountains  supply 
water  for  irrigation.  Traveling  east,  we 
first  pass  through  an  arid  section  where 
the  only  industry  is  grazing,  particularly 
the  grazing  of  sheep.  Gradually,  on  ac- 
count of  the  greater  rainfall,  cattle  are 
more  often  seen;  then  wheat,  and  more 
wheat.  If  we  visit  this  region  during 
harvest,  we  see  great  piles  of  wheat  in 
sacks  in  the  fields  or  along  the  railroad 
awaiting  shipment.  Soon  other  crops  ap- 
pear, including  oats,  barley,  flax,  corn, 
alfalfa,  and  vegetables  such  as  we  raise 
in  the  United  States.  Finally,  on  the 
latter  part  of  the  journey,  where  the 
rainfall  approaches  forty 
inches  and  the  summers  are 
hot,  corn  is  the  principal 
product. 

Throughout  the  600  miles 
from  Mendoza  (Fig.  183)  to 
Buenos  Aires  there  is 
scarcely  a  break  in  the 
landscape.  The  plain  is 
perfectly  flat,  with  hardly  a 
hill  or  even  a  low  ridge, 
and  not  many  trees.  Only 
here  and  there  are  clumps 
of  trees,  carefully  cared  for 
by  man.  A  journey  could 
scarcely  be  more  monoto- 
nous. Yet,  after  leaving  the 
arid  section,  it  is  hardly 
tiresome;  for  one  sees  signs 
of  prosperity  on  all  sides. 
How  fully  would  this  description  fit  a 
journey  across  our  own  country  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains  through  Nebraska  and 
Iowa  to  the  Mississippi  River? 

We  are  now  in  the  most  active  part  of 
South  America.  Buenos  Aires  is  often 
called  the  New  York  of  that  continent, 


and  Rosario,  a  few  hours'  journey  to  the 
northwest  on  the  Parana  River,  its  Chi- 
cago. How  far  is  Montevideo  from  Buenos 
Aires? 

What  makes  this  section  so  important? 
It  is,  "first  of  all,  the  climate.   In  the  tem- 
perate zones,  where  there  is 
a  decided  change  of  seasons,   ofkinot'^S 
people  have  most  energy  and  ^ou*J"^'°" 
make   most   progress.      It  is 
also  due  to  the  class  of  people  who  live 
here.    Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  white, 
and   very    many    are   immigrants    from 
Europe,    including    many    Itahans.     In 
the   tropical   countries   that   have   been 


©  Keystone  View  Co. ,  Inc. 

Fig.  183.  —  Molding  and  drying  adobe  bricks,  Mendoza 
Can  you  explain  why  bricks  are  in  great  demand  in  a  country  of  little 


rainfall? 


named  the  people  move  slowly  and  spend 
a  large  part  of  their  time  resting.  But 
here  we  find  energy,  and  we  should  feel 
much  at  home  among  the  inhabitants  if 
they  spoke  English  instead  of  Spanish. 

A  third  reason  for  the  importance  of 
Buenos  Aires  is  the  fact  that,  located  at 


188 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


the  mouth  of  the  Plata  River,  it  is  the 
outlet  for  a  vast  and  very  fertile  region 
including  much  of  Uruguay  and  Paraguay. 
The  country  between  Mendoza  and  Bue- 
nos Aires  well  represents,  in  its  farm 
products,  the  area  for  several  hundreds 
of  miles  both  north  and  south  of  it. 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  184.  —  The  Palace  of  Justice,  Buenos  Aires 
What  do  the  palms  tell  you  about  the  climate  here? 


Finally,  the  ease  of  transportation 
makes  this  section  important.  Note 
how  many  railroads  there  are  here  (Fig. 
175).  It  is  easier  to  build  them  on  these 
plains  than  among  the  mountains.  The 
great  rivers,  the  Uruguay  and  the  Parana, 
that  empty  into  the  Plata,  are  navigable 
far  inland.  The  Parana  is  twenty  miles 
wide  at  Rosario. 

Buenos  Aires  is  a  very  attractive  city, 
with  magnificent  buildings,  streets,  and 
parks.  The  harbor  is  per- 
haps the  most  interesting 
part;  here  are  seen  hides  and  meat,  as 
well   as   the   corn   and   wheat   that   are 


11.  Attractions 
of  this  section 


shipped  abroad;  and  the  machinery  and 
textile  goods  that  are  imported.  There 
arc  ships  from  all  countries,  and  flags 
and  people  of  many  colors. 

Rosario  is  busy  with  many  of  the 
same  products  that  are  important  in  our 
own  Chicago.  What  are  some  of  them 
(p.  92)?  Since  the  region 
north  of  it  is  not  far  from 
the  tropics,  some  of  the 
semi-tropical  products  that 
are  grown  in  our  Southern 
States  are  also  to  be  seen 
here.  Tucuman,  far  to  the 
northwest,  is  a  noted  ship- 
ping point  for  sugar. 

There  is  no  need  for  us 
to  stop  in  Uruguay;  it  is  so 
much    like    Ar-    ,^  ^^     .   . 

12.  The  princi- 

gentina  that   it    paipartof 

.    ,  ,,    ,  Brazil  to  visit 

might  well  be  a 
part  of  it.  Our  next  stop 
will  be  in  Brazil.  That 
country  has  a  greater  area 
than  the  United  States,  and 
ranks  with  Argentina  and 
Chile  as  one  of  the  leading 
countries  of  South  America. 

If  a  stranger  had  only  a  few  weeks  to 
visit  the  United  States,  he  might  be 
confused  about  the  places  he  should 
choose  to  see.  But  one  feels  no  such  con- 
fusion in  regard  to  Brazil.  Most  of  its 
vast  area  has  very  few  people.  Since  a 
large  part  of  the  population  is  found 
along  the  southeastern  coast,  that  is  the 
part  for  us  to  visit. 

One  fact  may  cause  surprise.  People 
in  Ecuador  and  Peru  largely  avoid  the 
coast,  living  far  up  on  the  highlands. 
This  Brazilian  coast  is  likewise  mostly  in 
the   tropics   (Fig.    175).     There   are   ex- 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


180 


tensive  highlands  a  short 
distance  inland,  although 
they  are  by  no  means  as 
lofty  as  the  Andes,  being 
only  two  or  three  thousand 
feet  in  altitude.  Yet  they 
are  high  enough  to  afford 
considerable  relief  from  the 
tropical  heat.  Why,  then, 
are  so  many  cities  located 
directly  on  the  coast?  Name 
the  more  important  ones. 

One  reason  is  that  there 
are  regular  winds  here,  called 
trade  winds,  blowing  from 
the  southeast,  that  bring 
much  rehef .  Another  is  that 
the  people  are  more  progres- 
sive than  those  in  other 
South  American  countries 
and  have  made  their  most  important 
coast  cities,  particularly  Rio  de  Janeiro 


13.  Facts  of 
interest  in  the 
coffee  section 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Servifc 

Fig.  186.  — ^  A  coffee  plantation  in  Brazil 
Does  this  plantation  appear  to  be  on  the  highland  or  lowland,  or  on  the 
slope  between  them?    What  is  being  done  to  the  coffee  berries  in  the  fore- 
ground? 


Cuurteny  of  South  A merican  Publishing  Co. 

Fig.  185.  — Loading  wheat  in  Rosario 
Can  you  explain  the  method  that  is  being  used  here?    To  what  ports  in 
the  United  States  may  this  wheat  eventually  find  its  way? 


and  Santos,  quite  sanitary,  so  that  they 

can  live  in  them  with  safety. 

The  leading  export  of 
Brazil  is  coffee;  that  coun- 
try grows  two 
thirds  of  all  the 
coffee  in  the 
world.  No  doubt  you  have 
heard  of  "Rio"  coffee,  so 
called  because  it  comes  from 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  more 
important  port  for  its  ex- 
port, however,  is  Santos. 

The  coffee  trees  grow  best 
on  the  highlands,  at  an  al- 
titude of  from  1,000  to 
2,500  feet.  Men  take  care 
of  the  trees  very  carefully, 
one  man  having  perhaps 
2,000  trees  in  charge,  and  a 
family  often  from  8,000  to 
10,000.      The     berries     in 


190 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


which  the  grains  of  coffee  are  found  begin 
to  ripen  in  June.  They  have  to  be 
picked  from  the  trees,  dried  in  the  sun 
as  shown  in  Fig.  186,  and  then  hulled. 
The  harvest  is  in  full  swing  by  September 
and  is  about  over  in  November. 


(i;)  I'liblislierti'  Pltoto  Service 

Fig.  187.^  Rio  de  Janeiro 
The  harbor  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  world, 
with  its  mountain  scenery  and  tropical  plants. 


There  are  many  small  planters;  but 
most  of  the  coffee  is  grown  on  large  plan- 
tations. Such  a  plantation  has  its  own 
villages  or  houses  for  the  workmen;  its 
own  stores,  where  they  can  purchase  most 
of  their  food  and  clothing;  and  even  its 
own  railroads  for  carrying  the  workmen 
to  different  parts  of  the  estate  and  for 
collecting  the  berries.  A  large  plantation 
may  employ  as  many  as  1,000  or  even 
1,800  men.  The  center  of  the  industry 
is  Sao  Paulo,  on  the  upland. 

Although  it  is  in  the  tropics,  Rio  de 
Janeiro  is  the  second  city  in  size  in  South 
America.    The  part  of  most  beauty  is  the 


harbor  (Fig.  187),  and  it  is  the  excellence 
of  this  harbor  more  than  anything  else 
that  has  caused   the  growth  ,,  „ 

,  '='14.   Reasons  for 

of  the  City.     While  coffee  is  the  growth  of 

,  1         1        1 .  1       ,      •         ,  1  •      Rio  de  Janeiro 

the   leading   product   in   this 

region,  others  of  importance  are  sugar 
cane,  cotton,  and  cacao, 
which  grow  on  the  low  coast- 
lands  and  on  the  slopes  of 
the  uplands  to  the  north- 
east. There  are  many  cattle, 
also,  upon  the  uplands. 

There  is  a  serious  draw- 
back to  the  development 
of  Rio  de  Jan- 

1    •      p       ■  15.    A  serious 

eirO  and,  in  tact,       hindrance  to 

of  Brazil  as  a  l^tlT'''' 
whole.  One  can 
travel  by  rail  southwest  to 
Uruguay,  but  one  cannot 
reach  the  next  important 
city  to  the  northeast,  Bahia 
(Fig.  175),  by  rail.  One  can 
go  by  rail  from  Bahia  to 
Pernambuco,  but  not  from 
Pernambuco  to  Para,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon.  In 
other  words,  the  principal  centers  of 
population  in  Brazil,  which  are  hundreds 
and  even  thousands  of  miles  apart,  are 
connected  with  one  another  only  by 
water.  Boats  are  so  much  slower  than 
trains,  and  run  so  seldom,  that  the  dis- 
advantage is  great.  What  must  be  the 
effect  upon  the  trade  of  these  centers  with 
one  another?  Upon  the  acquaintance 
and  friendship  of  the  inhabitants  of 
different  sections  with  one  another? 

Is  a  trip  up  the  Amazon  River  advis- 
able? Judge  for  yourself  after  learning 
the  principal  facts.  If  the  trip  is  taken, 
one  ought  to  go  all  the  way  to  Iquitos 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


191 


16.  A  trip  up  the 
Amazon  River 


in  northeastern  Peru,  which  is  about 
2,600  miles  from  the  river  mouth.  Find 
that  town  on  Fig.  175  and 
trace  the  route  to  it.  Ocean 
o.  The  route  vesscls  cau  reach  Iquitos. 
follow  rpj^g   entire   voyage,    up    and 

back,  takes  about  a  month. 

Of  course  it  is  very  hot  all  the  time. 
How  near  is  the  mouth  of  the  river  to  the 
equator?  No  one  who  is  unable  to  stand 
heat  ought  to  attempt  the  voyage. 

Very  few  people  live  along  the  river. 
There  are  only  three  important  towns 
during  this  whole  distance.  Para,  Manaos, 
and  Iquitos.  The  main  stops  would  be  at 
these  places,  and  one  would  expect  to  be 
on  the  boat  almost  the  entire  time.  If 
one  happened  to  be  travel- 
ing on  a  vessel  intended 
more  for  freight  than  for 
passengers,  as  would  prob- 
ably be  the  case,  there  would 
be  a  good  many  discom- 
forts during  the  voyage. 
Can  you  imagine  what  some 
of  them  would  probably  be? 

The  principal  product  of 
this  region  is  rubber.    Brazil 
once  supplied 
most    of    the 
world's   supply  of    rubber. 
The  amount  of  rubber  now 
produced  is  about  the  same 
as  formerly,  but  so  much 
plantation    rubber    is   now 
being  produced  in  the  East 
Indies  that   BraziHan    rubber  is   today 
only  about  a  tenth  of  the  world's  supply. 
Para,  a  city  of  275,000  is  the  center  for  its 
transportation.    It  will  be  seen  awaiting 
shipment  also  at  Manaos  and  Iquitos,  in 
fact  at  almost  every  stop  that  is  made. 


Dyewoods  and  cabinet  woods,  nuts,  and 
barks  from  which  we  get  vanilla  and 
sarsaparilla,  are  other  common  articles 
for  export. 

The  tropical  jungle  is  interesting,  if 
one  gets  near  enough  to  it  to  see  it  well. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  this  is  a 
wide  river,  at  times  so  wide  that  one  can- 
not see  across  it.  Even  at  Iquitos  it  is 
three  miles  in  width.  Yet  now  and  then 
as  one  comes  close  to  shore  the  tangle  of 
the  forest  will  be  observed.  There  are 
many  trees,  both  large  and  small,  and 
vines  of  many  kinds  all  struggling  for 
room  and  so  close  together  that  one 
would  often  have  to  cut  a  path  in  order 
to  pass  through. 


6.  What  one 
would  see 


©  Broun  Brox 


Fig.  188.  ^Preparing  rubber  for  shipment 
The  rubber  is  smoked  and  dried  until  it  takes  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  189. 

Animal  life  is  just  as  abundant.  The 
only  dangerous  beast  of  prey  is  the 
jaguar.  Monkeys  are  common;  brilliant- 
ly colored  birds  also,  such  as  parrots; 
butterflies  of  gorgeous  hues,  and  numer- 
ous other  insects.     Among  the  reptiles 


192 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


are  alligators,  snakes,  and  turtles;  and 
there  are  fish  of  various  kinds.  The  visi- 
tor is  sure  to  see  many  of  these  animals. 
But  the  many  annoying  insects,  particu- 
larly the  mosquitoes  and  fleas,  would 
probably  claim  more  of  one's  attention. 


Fig.  189.  — Rubber  ready  for  shipment 

The  rubber,  as  you  see,  is  carried  on  poles.     Notice  the  holes  in  the 
large  "biscuits"  that  are  lying  in  the  pile. 

The  hot,  damp,  and  dark  forest  is  the 
poorest  of  places  for  a  home;  neverthe- 
c.  Life  of  the  less  the  natives  who  collect 
rubber  cou^tar    ^^iQ  rubber  and  other  forest 

products  must  spend  a  great  deal  of  time 
there. 

The  rubber  trees  are  not  found  in 
groves,  but  are  widely  scattered,  one  here, 
another  there.  The  rubber  collector, 
therefore,  usually  alone,  builds  a  hut  for 
himself  out  in  the  forest,  which  he  makes 
his  headquarters.  From  it  he  follows 
paths  from  tree  to  tree,  covering  a  con- 
siderable area.  The  rubber  from  the  trees 
that  he  taps  is  brought  to  this  head- 
quarters, smoked  and  dried,  and  then 
carried  or  taken  in  canoes  to  warehouses 


erected  by  white  men  along  the  larger 
streams.  From  these  it  is  taken  by  boat 
to  larger  centers,  finally  reaching  Iquitos 
or  Manaos  or  Para,  from  which  places  it 
is  shipped  abroad.  How  would  you  like 
to  spend  a  few  days  with  the  rubber  col- 
lector? Can  you  imagine 
adventures  that  you  might 
have? 

On  leaving  the  Amazon 
we  start  for  home.    There 
are   a  few  other   countries 
that  might  be  visited;  but 
they  would  show  only  such 
products  and  kinds  of  life 
as  we  have   already  seen; 
and  we  are  tired  of  the  heat 
and  the  hardships  of  travel. 
As  we  leave  the  continent 
we  ar6  impressed  with  our 
dependence  upon  it.  .  Much 
of  our  coffee  grows  there; 
part  of  our  rubber,  also,  and 
our    cacao.      Many    other 
things,  too,  are  imported  by 
us  from  South  America,  such,  for  example, 
as  vanilla,  Panama  hats,  dyewoods,  hides, 
and  wool.     As  these   countries  develop 
and  our  own  population  increases,  much 
of  our  other  food  may  be  found  there, 
particularly  meats  and  grains.    In  return, 
these  countries  are  buying  many  of  our 
manufactures  and  are  likely  to  import 
far  more  in  the  future.    The  welfare  of 
each  continent,  therefore,  depends  great- 
ly upon  that  of  the  other. 


©  Brmrn  Bros. 


1.    How  does  South  America  resemble 
North  America?    2.    State  some  advan- 
tages that  South  America  en-         Review 
joys  over  North  America.    3.         questions 
Show  how  the  climate  of  South  America 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


193 


has  hindered  its  progress.  4.  Tell  about 
the  lack  of  coal.  5.  The  lack  of  educa- 
tion. 6.  At  what  seasons  and  by  what 
means  of  conveyance  should  one  visit 
South  America?  7.  Describe  the  voy- 
age to  Guayaquil.  8.  What  scenes  would 
you  expect  in  and  about  Guayaquil? 
9.  Give  facts  of  interest  on  a  journey 
to  Quito.  10.  In  and  about  Quito. 
11.  At  Callao,  Lima,  and  vicinity.  12. 
At  Mollendo,  Arequipa,  and  other  points 
in  that  region.  13.  How  is  northern  Chile 
especially  important?  14.  What  are  the 
attractions  of  the  central  valley  of  Chile? 
15.  What  route  should  be  taken  from 
Santiago  to  Buenos  Aires?  16.  What 
experiences  might  be  expected  on  the 
mountain  journey?  17.  What  impres- 
sions does  the  traveler  receive?  18.  Ex- 
plain the  importance  of  Buenos  Aires 
and  the  region  about  it.  19.  What  are 
the  attractions  of  that  region?  20.  Which 
is  the  principal  part  of  Brazil,  and  what 
makes  it  so  important?  21.  State  some 
facts  about  the  coffee  section.  22.  Give 
reasons  for  the  growth  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
23.  What  obstacle  checks  its  growth  and 
that  of  Brazil  as  well?  24.  What  are 
some  of  the  conditions  to  be  expected 
on    a    voyage    up    the   Amazon    River? 

25.  What  is  to  be  seen  on  such  a  trip? 

26.  Describe  the  life  of  the  rubber  col- 
lector. 27.  How  are  we  dependent  on 
South  America? 


1.  How  does  the  shape  of  Chile  com- 
pare with  that  of  a  yardstick  an  inch 
Suggestions  ^ide?  2.  How  can  you  ac- 
for  extra  count  for  this  shape?    Is  it 

an  advantage  or  disadvan- 
tage for  a  country  to  be  so  long  and  nar- 
row?    3.  The  condor  of  South  America 


is  one  of  the  largest  of  birds.  Read  about 
its  appearance  and  habits.  4.  Make  a 
list  of  the  uses  of  rubber.  5.  Make  a  list 
of  all  the  things  you  eat,  wear,  or  use  in 
other  ways,  which  come  from  South 
America.  6.  There  has  been  talk  of  a 
railroad  from  Buenos  Aires  to  New  York. 
What  parts  in  South  America  are  already 
completed  (Fig.  175)?  Map  out  the  route 
the  remaining  parts  in  South  America 
could  best  take.  7.  Make  a  sand  model 
of  South  America,  showing  the  highlands 
and  lowlands,  the  three  great  rivers,  and 
locations  of  principal  cities.  Use  Fig. 
170  as  a  help.  8.  What  reasons  can  you 
give  why  it  might  be  wise  for  you  to 
study  the  Spanish  language? 

1.  Between  what  oceans  does  South  America 

lie?    2.  With  what  other  continent  is  it  connected? 

3.    Compare    South    America    and        jyj      aues- 

North  America  in  shape;    in  size;        tions  on 

in  coast  line.    4.  Measure  the  dis-        South 
,  .         .,  o      XI     A  •  America 

tance  m  miles  across  South  America 

from  north  to  south;  from  east  to  west  at  the 
widest  part.  5.  In  what  zones  does  South  America 
lie?  6.  Locate  and  name  four  important  capes  or 
points  on  the  coast  line.  7.  In  what  part  of  South 
America  are  the  highest  mountains?  8.  To  what 
mountain  system  of  North  America  do  they  cor- 
respond? 9.  What  highland  region  of  South 
America  corresponds  in  location  to  the  Appala- 
chian Highland  of  North  America?  10.  Name  and 
locate  the  two  great  river  systems  of  South  Amer- 
ica. 11.  Are  there  any  great  bays,  gulfs  or  lakes  in 
South  America?  12.  Name  and  locate  the  largest 
country  in  South  America.  ■  13.  Locate  and  de- 
scribe the  shape  of  Chili;  of  Ecuador.  14.  Judg- 
ing from  the  railways  and  cities  shown,  which 
country  do  you  think  is  most  thickly  settled? 
15.  What  are  the  two  largest  cities  of  South  Amer- 
ica? 16.  What  country  in  South  America  has  a 
climate  most  nearly  like  ours?  Why?  17.  What 
countries  have  no  seacoast?  18.  Using  the  notes 
in  black  type  on  the  margin  of  the  pages  as  a  guide, 
trace  again  the  imaginary  journey  described  in 
the  text.    Locate  each  place  mentioned. 


PART  IV.     EUROPE 


I.     General  Facts 


The  botind- 
aries  of 
Europe  and 
reasons  for 
calling  it  a 
continent 


A  continent  is  a  very  large  body  of 

land  almost  or  entirely  surrounded  by 
water.  North  and  South  Am- 
erica are  examples.  Europe 
(Fig.  197)  has  oceans  on  its 
north  and  west  sides,  and  on 
its  south  two  great  seas.  Name 

and  locate  these  bodies  of 

water.    On  the  east,   how- 
ever, there  is  land.    Trace 

the  boundary  of  Europe 

from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the 

Arctic  Ocean.    Europe  is 

thus  seen  to  be  only  a  pen- 
insula extending  westward 

from  Asia,  a  little  larger  in 

area  than  the  United  States. 

Europe  and  Asia  together 

are   sometimes    called    the 

continent  of  Eurasia. 
Yet  Europe  is  commonly 

called  a  continent.    It  got 

Reasons  for      that  name  long 

its  importance   g^g^^    when    its 

connection  with  Asia  was 
not  known,  and  it  has  kept 
it  partly  because  of  its  great 
importance,  for  it  is  one  of 
the  most  densely  populated  of  all  the 
continents.  Note  how  many  separate 
countries  there  are  in  Fig.  198.  How  does 
the  number  compare  with  that  in  North 
America?  Which  has  the  greatest  area? 
Which  ones  have  you  often  heard  of? 


Locate  the  British  Isles;  France;  Ger- 
many; Russia;  Italy.  Although  Europe 
is  only  a  Httle  larger  than  the  United 
States  and  Alaska,  it  has  more  than  four 
times  as  many  inhabitants. 

Europe  is  of  great  importance,  also,  be- 
cause it  governs  so  many  other  parts  of 


Fig.  191.  —  Annual  rainfall  in  Europe 

the  earth.  Although  Canada  governs 
itself,  it  is  a  part  of  the  British  Empire. 
What  other  parts  of  North  America  be- 
long to  Great  Britain?  Guiana,  in  South 
America,  is  divided  among  three  coun- 
tries  of   Europe    (p.    178).      Name   and 


195 


19G 


EUROPE 


locate  them.  Almost  all  of  Africa  is 
governed  by  the  countries  of  Europe; 
so  also  are  large  areas  of  Asia,  and  one 
entire  continent,  Australia,  is,  like  Can- 
ada, a  part  of  the  British  Empire. 

Again,  Europe  has  been  a  teacher  for 
all  the  peoples  of  the  world.  Its  countries 
are  so  much  older  than  most  others  that. 


Why  it  is  di- 
vided into  so 
many  coun- 
tries 


Fig.  192.  —  The  Tyrolean  Alps 


The  Tyrolean  Alps  (Fig.  201)  contain  some  of  the  most  rugged  mountains  in  Europe, 
rivalling  the  Swiss  Alps  (Fig.  220)  in  beauty.  Notice  on  the  map  that,  while  the  chief 
mountain  systems  of  North  and  South  America  run  north  and  south,  those  of  Europe 
run  east  and  west. 


until  the  advances  made  in  North  Amer- 
ica in  the  last  century,  they  led  all  others 
in  discovering  the  best  ways  of  farming, 
mining,  manufacturing,  and  doing  other 
kinds  of  w^ork.  Most  of  the  best  books, 
music,  painting,  and  sculpture  have  been 
produced  there,  and  many  of  the  best 
schools  have  been  there. 

Make  a  list  of  the  countries  that  you 
find  on  the  map  of  Europe.  One  reason 
why  there  are  so  many  is  that  the  water 


and  mountains  together  divide  the  con- 
tinent into  parts  that  could  not  easily 
communicate  with  one  an- 
other before  the  days  of  rail- 
roads, automobiles,  the  tele- 
graph and  telephone.  For 
example,  the  British  Isles  form  a  separate 
nation  because  they  are  entirely  cut  off 

from  other  people 
by  water.  Italy  is 
nearly  surrounded 
by  water,  while  on 
the  north  side  are 
the  Alps  (Fig.  197), 
which  are  not  easy 
to  cross.  What 
other  countries  are 
largely  cut  off  by 
water,  or  mountains, 
or  both? 

In  times  past  when 
there  was  little  travel, 
each  group  of  people 
thus  separated  from 
others  learned  to 
speak  a  different  lan- 
guage from  its  neigh- 
bors and  to  govern 
itself  in  its  own  way. 
War  has  been  an- 
other cause  of  the 
large  number  of  separate  countries.  Dif- 
ferent groups  of  people  have  found  it 
difficult  to  get  on  with  one  another, 
having  lived  separately  and  kept  their 
own  customs  for  many  centuries;  and 
after  fighting  for  a  time,  they  have  set 
up  independent  governments  with  any 
boundaries  that  they  have  had  strength 
enough  to  hold.  Much  of  the  boundary 
of  Germany  is  the  result  of  war.  Trace 
it  and  note  how  irregular  it  is. 


tone  View  Co.,  Inc. 


THE   BRITISH   ISLES 


197 


II.     Northwestern  Europe 
1.    The  British  Isles 


Why  these 
islands  are  a 
central  place 
of  interest  in 
the  world 

1.  Our  special 


The  British  Isles  —  called,  also,  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  —  are  of  special  inter- 
est to  us,  because  they  are  our 
Mother  Country. 
All  the  nations  of 
Europe   have   sent 

interest  in  them    g^ttlerS   tO    US;     but 

our  early  settlers  came  from 
this  kingdom  and  gave  us  our 
English  language.  Many  of  our 
names  of  places  are  English, 
such  for  example  as  New  York, 
New  Hampshire,  and  New  Jer- 
sey. Can  you  think  of  others? 
Many  of  our  books  were  writ- 
ten there:  Alice  in  Wonderland, 
for  instance,  Robinson  Crusoe, 
Treasure  Island,  and  Ivanhoe. 
Many  of  our  ideas  of  govern- 
ment have  come  from  these 
islands,  and  we  have  more  trade 
with  them  than  with  any  other 
country  in  the  world. 

The  British  Isles  are  the  cen- 
ter of  the  British  Empire,  which 

includes   about   a 

fourth  of  all  the 

land  and  nearly  a 

fourth  of  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth.  We  have  already  noted 
(p.  196)  that  Canada  and  Australia  are 
parts  of  this  empire;  so,  also,  is  the 
great  peninsula  in  southern  Asia  called 
India;  and  so  are  large  portions  of  Africa 
and  scores  of  islands  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.  Many  of  the  colonies  look  to 
these  islands  for  guidance  in  govern- 
ment, commerce,  and  education.  No  other 


country  has  so  many  people  dependent 
upon  it. 

Since  we  are  so  closely  related  to  these 
isles,  many  of  our  people  visit  them  both 


2.  Their  im- 
portance as  the 
center  of  the 
British  Empire 


©  Underu-ood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  193.  —  The  Tower  of  London 
This  is  one  of  the  most  famous  prisons  in  the  world.     You  will  find 
many  references  to  it  in  your  study  of  history. 


for  business  and  for  pleasure.  If  you  were 
to  make  the  voyage  from  New  York,  you 
might  be  surprised  at  the 
direction  the  ship  took.  In- 
stead of  sailing  directly  east, 
it  would  go  northeast  nearly 
all  the  time.  London  is  almost 
seven  hundred  miles  farther  north  than 
New  York  City,  or  much  farther  north 
than  Montreal.     In  Fig.  315  follow  the 


A  visit  to 
these  islands 

1.  Some  facts 
about  the 
voyage 


198 


EUROPE 


Photo  by  ElinendorJ'    ©  Eiiiny  Galloway 

Fig.  194.  -The  River  Clyde,  near  Glasgow 

Are  these  ships  completely  built?     What  parts  are  missing?     Explain,  from 
your  study  of  the  text,  why  this  river  should  be  famous  for  its  shipbuilding. 


course  that  would  be  taken.     Note  how 
near  you  go  to  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia. 

The   voyage   would   last     

from  five  days  to  a  week  or 
more,  according  to  the  speed 
of  the  vessel.  The  port  for 
which  you  would  be  bound 
would  probably  be  South- 
ampton on  the  southern 
coast  of  England  (Fig.  201), 
or  Liverpool  on  the  west 
coast,  or  Glasgow  in  Scot- 
land (Fig.  194).  Estimate 
the  distance  from  New 
York  to  Liverpool;  also  the 
rate  of  travel  if  the  voyage 
takes  six  full  days.  How 
does  this  rate  compare  with 
the  usual  rate  by  rail? 


The  climate  on  the 
islands  might  bring  an- 
other   sur-  2  ^^^  ^,^^^^ 

prise.      Al-    needed  on  the 
11  island 

though  they 
lie  so  far  north,  the 
temperature  is  warmer 
in  winter  and  cooler  in 
summer  than  in  New 
York  state.  Less  fuel 
is  needed  in  winter,  and 
people  suffer  little  from 
the  heat  in  summer. 
Heavy  wraps  or  light 
summer  clothing,  there- 
fore,  are  less  needed 
there  than  here. 

The  Atlantic  Ocean 
and  the  winds  furnish 
the  explanation.  The 
warm  waters  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  drift  north- 
eastward past  Ireland 
far  toward  the  Arctic  Ocean;  and  the 
winds  which  blow  across  them  from  the 


©  Press  Illustrating  Service 

Fig.  195.  —  The  Thames  River  at  Hampton,  England 
This  small  city  in  England  lies  to  the  west  of  London,  in  the  farming  sec- 
tion of  England.     This  southern  portion  of  the  coimtry  is  quiet,  clean,  and 
pleasant,  a  section  that  one  would  want  to  visit  on  a  tour  of  the  British  Isles. 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES 


199 


west  spread  their  heat  over  the  land  and 
give  it  a  much  milder  winter  than  could 
otherwise  be  expected.  In  summer  the 
ocean  is  cooler  than  the  land  and  the 
winds  bring  cool  air  to  the  islands. 

These  westerly  winds  carry  an  abun- 
dance of  moisture.  Some  of  the  western 
slopes  of  the  mountains  receive  as  high  as 
eighty  inches  of  rain  per 
year,  which  is  twice  as  much 
as  falls  in  most  of  our  east- 
ern states.  Farther  east  the 
fall  is  less  and  in  southeast- 
ern England  the  amount  is 
not  over  twenty-five  inches. 

London  is  the  city  to  visit 
above  all  others.  It  is  the 
3.  What  one  capital  and  the 
would  see  in  the  center  of  the 

large  cities  t->    -x-   i       t-i 

British    lijmpire 

a.  In  London  ,  /      , 

and,  next  to 
New  York,  the  largest  city 
in  the  world. 

Possibly  the  most  inter- 
esting thing  to  see  there 
would  be  the  harbor.  The 
city  is  located  on  the 
Thames  River  about  forty 
miles  from  its  mouth,  which 
is  about  as  far  up-stream  as 
ocean  vessels  can  go.  For 
thirty-five  miles  of  that  dis- 
tance, ships  from  all  parts 
of  the  earth  would  be  found 
on  both  its  shores  loading 
and  unloading  their  goods. 
London  is  the  port  into 
which  much  of  the  food  for  this  island  is 
brought.  If  you  were  to  board  the  ves- 
sels or  pass  through  the  warehouses,  you 
would  see  vast  stores  of  bananas,  coco- 
nuts or  coconut  meat,  cocoa,  coffee,  tea. 


wines,  wheat,  flour,  corn,  rice,  sugar,  and 
meat.  Make  a  list  of  other  things  you 
would  expect  to  find.  What  flags  of  for- 
eign nations  could  you  recognize? 

The  street  scenes  might  interest  some 
persons  even  more.  The  buildings  are  by 
no  means  so  tall  as  they  are  in  our  large 
cities,  nor  are  street  cars  common.    The 


©  Underwood  and  Undertiood 

Fig.  196. —  Cheapside,  London 
This  is  one  of  the  main  streets  of  London.    Many  of  the  important  streets 
of  London  are  the  built-up  portions  of  roads  that  radiate  out  from  the  center 
of  London  in  every  direction. 


streets  are  too  narrow  for  them,  and  om- 
nibuses are  used  instead  (Fig.  196) ;  they 
can  pick  their  way  about  more  readily. 
Would  you  expect  to  find  many  foreigners 
on  the  streets?    Why? 


202 


EUROPE 


Some  of  the  public  buildings  should 
be  visited.  Since  London  is  the  capital 
of    the   British   Empire,   many  laws  are 


Fig.  199.  —  "Westminster  Abbey,  London,  England 
This  is  one  of  the  most  famous  buildings  in  the  world.     Here  are  buried 
many  of  England's  illustrious  dead. 


made  there  and  the  Parliament  Buildings 
in  which  this  is  done  would  be  of  interest. 
The  British  Parliament  corresponds  to 
our  Congress  that  meets  at  Washington 
(p.  31).  Westminster  Abbey  (Fig.  199) 
is  a  church  that  is  noted  as  the  burial  place 
of  distinguished  men.  The  palace  of  the 
king  w  ould  be  seen  from  a  distance.  One 
of  the  most  famous  buildings  in  the  city  is 
the  great  prison  called  the  Tower  of 
London  (Fig.  193). 

Liverpool  ranks  next  to  London  as  a 
seaport.     Manchester  and  Glasgow  also 


have  a  great  foreign  commerce.  How 
far  apart  are  the  latter  cities?  They 
are  especially  well  situated  h.  in  Liverpool 
for  trade  with  <^^  Glasgow 
North  and  South  America, 
receiving  vast  quantities 
of  food  and  raw  mate- 
rials for  manufacture,  and 
exporting  manufactured 
articles.  In  their  harbors 
the  great  number  of  masts 
reminds  one  of  a  for- 
est of  very  straight  trees, 
and  the  funnels  of  steam- 
ships can  be  counted  almost 
by  the  hundred.  Many  of 
the  ships  are  unloading 
wheat,  flour,  corn,  meat, 
and  w^ool.  Cotton  bales  by 
the  thousand  may  be  seen 
at  Liverpool,  although  most 
of  them  are  carried,  farther 
inland  by  ship  canal  to  Man- 
chester (Fig.  201).  What 
countries  that  you  have 
studied  are  hkely  to  send 
these  things  to  Great 
Britain? 

The  cities  themselves 
would  seem  to  you  dingy  and  smoky,  for 
they  have  an  enormous  number  of  fac- 
tories and  mills.  Shipbuilding  is  a  leading 
industry;  Glasgow  is  the  greatest  center 
in  the  world  for  this  work.  So  many 
ships  are  built  there  that  even  the  chance 
visitor  is  likely  to  see  the  launching  of 
one.  The  principal  articles  piled  up  at 
the  wharves  ready  for  export  are  woolen, 
cotton,  and  Unen  goods,  and  machinery 
of  all  kinds. 

Edinburgh,  facing  the  North  Sea  and 
only  a  short  distance  east  of  Glasgow,  is 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES 


203 


c.  In  Edin- 
burgh 
and  other 
towns  on  the 
east  coast 


very  different  in  appearance.  It  is  the 
old  capital  of  Scotland.  Here  one  sees 
churches  and  schools,  book- 
stores, publishing  houses, 
government  buildings,  and 
beautiful  parks  (Fig.  200). 
There  is  less  smoke  in  the  air, 
and  everything  is  cleaner. 

The  most  interesting  occupation  to  a 
visitor  on  the  eastern  coast  of  England 
would  be  the  fishing  (Fig.  202) .  The  shal- 
low North  Sea  shuts  out  the  cold  currents 
of  the  ocean  and  furnishes  excellent  breed- 
ing and  feeding  grounds  for  fish.  Since  the 
winters  are  mild,  fishing  can  be  carried  on 
here  throughout  the  year.  Accordingly, 
this  is  a  favorite  place  for  that  industry. 
A  passenger  on  board  a  ship 
crossing  the  North  Sea  to 
Hamburg  in  Germany  once 
counted  120  fishing  boats 
within  a  few  minutes,  al- 
though the  day  was  so  rainy 
and  gloomy  that  he  could 
not  see  far.  All  together 
there  are  about  100,000 
men  in  the  United  King- 
dom engaged  in  this  occu- 
pation, most  of  them  in 
these  waters.  Can  you  im- 
agine some  of  the  dangers 
they  must  meet  in  stormy 
and  foggy  weather? 

Any    traveler    crossing 
northern    England    is    im- 

d.  In  the  minino    prCSSCd  wlth  the 

districts  number  of  chim- 

neys belching  forth  black 
smoke.  Great  Britain  is  a  manufacturing 
country.  The  chief  reason  for  this  is  the 
abundance  of  coal  underground.  The 
raw  material,  next  to  coal,  that  is  usually 


most  valuable  for  manufacturing  is  iron 
ore;  and  that  also  is  found  in  large  quan- 
tities near  the  coal.  For  these  reasons 
mining  is  extensive  here,  and  there  are 
nearly  a  million  men  at  work  under- 
ground. The  visitor,  therefore,  would 
see  many  miners  and  mining  towns.  How 
could  you  tell  that  they  were  miners, 
if  you  saw  them  on  their  way  to  or  from 
their  work? 

Three  principal  kinds  of  manufacturing 
are  carried  on  in  the  interior  cities.  One 
makes  use  of  the  coal  and  iron 
ore  to  produce  iron  and  steel, 
and  hundreds  of  kinds  of  met- 
al articles.  Birmingham  and  Sheffield 
are  two  cities  especially  noted  for  that 


e.  In  the 

manufacturing 

districts 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Eiring  Galloway 

Fig.  200.  —  Scott  Montiment  and  Princes'  Street,  Edinburgh 

Read  the  text  to  see  why  you  would  expect  Edinburgh  to  be  a  more 
beautiful  city  than  Glasgow. 


work,  making  armor  plates  for  ships,  steel 
rails,  firearms,  automobiles,  and  cutlery. 
Locate  them.  You  can  see  one  reason, 
now,  why  shipbuilding   is   so  great  an 


Longitude  West  from  G 


Fig.  201 


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STER1 
EUROPE         i 

POUTICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  MAP 


Scale  of  statute  mile 
0  50  lOO  200 


Railroads 


Canals 


■  ^    Tola* 


Capitals  of  Countries  ® 
H€lGHTS  IN  FEET 

Over  10,000  1,000  to  .',1,00 

5,000  to  10,000     -^  .       500tol,{^£n 

■  000  to  6,000         ■    ^    ;*^»i-    atia  level  ^00 


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^^^^M  BelovKsea  le 

IMfc    M«l  IHhWb-KOHTnMtf  WORxill  DuFflLO, 


Fig.  201 


206 


EUROPE 


industry  in  Liverpool  and  Glasgow;  the 
necessary  coal  and  iron  are  near  at  hand. 
Does  the  chief  occupation  of  Birmingham, 
in  England,  explain  the  name  of  Birming- 
ham in  Alabama? 

Another  kind  of  manufacturing  here 
is  that  of  woolen  goods.  Sheep  have 
always  thrived  on  this  island;    this  led 


can  make  of  things  made  of  cotton.  The 
spinning  and  weaving  of  wool  led  to  cot- 
ton manufacture,  and  the  abundance  of 
coal,  used  in  running  the  machinery  of 
the  mills,  has  favored  both  industries. 
Now  the  cotton  industry  is  much  more 
important  than  woolen  manufacture. 
Most  of  the  cotton  comes  from  our  South - 


Fig.  202.  —  An  English  fishing  fleet 


©  Keystone  View  Co. ,  Inc. 


long  ago  to  the  spinning  and  weaving  of 
wool.  Now  the  native  sheep  supply  only 
a  small  part  of  the  wool  used.  The  lead- 
ing cities  in  this  industry  are  Leeds  and 
Bradford.  Find  them  on  Fig.  20 L  What 
articles  can  you  name  that  are  made  of 
wool? 

The  third  kind  of  manufacturing  here 
is  that  of  cotton  goods.  Strange  to  say, 
while  these  islands  grow  no  cotton,  an 
enormous  amount  of  it  is  here  made  into 
thread  and  cloth.    See  how  long  a  list  you 


ern  States.  The  center  of  the  industry 
is  Manchester,  which  is  connected  with 
Liverpool  by  the  ship  canal  already  men- 
tioned. 

Central  England  and  southern  Scot- 
land are  two  of  the  greatest  workshops 
of  the  world.  In  these  regions  the  cities 
are  so  close  together  that  a  person  some- 
times cannot  tell  when  he  is  leaving  one 
and  entering  another.  People  in  the 
West  Indies,  southern  Africa,  India,  and 
many  other  distant  places  are  very  de- 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES 


207 


pendent  on  what  goes  on  here.  Why?  Do 
you  see  now  why  so  much  food  and  raw 
material  are  brought  into  the  leading  sea- 
ports, and  so  many  goods  made  of  iron 
and  steel,  wool,  and  cotton  are  sent  forth? 
Name  the  principal  imports  and  exports 
once  more.  To  what  extent  would  there 
be  suffering  in  the  world  if  the  coal  miners 
of  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales  refused 
to  work? 


cover  many  of  the  buildings,  and  green 
grass  and  magnificent  trees  are  always  in 
view  (Fig.  204). 

Some  of  our  most  important  crops 
would  not  be  seen:  for  example,  corn, 
grapes,  sugar  cane,  or  cotton;  h.  The  farm 
the  summers  are  too  cool  for  -products 
them.  But  the  most  hardy  grains  and 
vegetables  flourish,  such  as  oats,  barley, 
rye,  cabbages,  peas,  beans,  turnips,  and 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Eming  Galloway 


Fig.  203.  —  Lake  Aive  in  the  Scottish  Highlands 


country 

a.  The  scenery 


To  many  visitors  the  country  districts 
would  be  the  most  attractive  parts  of  the 
4.  What  one  island.  There  is  a  beautiful 
wouid^see  in  the  Jake  distHct  in  northern  Eng- 
land, and  another  in  Scotland. 
How  could  you  enjoy  your- 
self in  such  a  place?  Almost  any  section 
of  the  country,  however,  is  beautiful. 
The  houses  and  the  fields  are  kept  in 
good  condition,  the  winding  roads  are 
finely  paved,  the  hedges  that  border  them 
are  well  trimmed,  ivy  and  other  vines 


potatoes.  Truck  gardens  are  very  numer- 
ous, since  there  are  so  many  large  cities. 

Twice  as  much  space  is  given  to  grass 
as  to  all  these  products,  partly  because 
much  of  the  land  is  too  hilly  and  rocky  to 
be  cultivated,  and  partly  because  grass 
grows  so  well  in  that  climate.  Some  of 
the  finest  country  scenes  are  those  of 
grazing  cattle  and  sheep.  Many  of  our 
best  cattle  and  sheep  are  imported  from 
Great  Britain  and  its  neighboring  islands. 
Possibly  you  know  the  names  of  some  of 


208 


EUROPE 


(£i  Press  Illustrating  Service 

Fig.  204.  —  An  English  country  home 
Many  of  the  houses  in  the  country  districts  of  England  are  set  in  large 
yards  surrounded  by  stone  or  hedge  fences  and  by  many  large  trees. 

the  breeds.    The  cattle  and  sheep  supply 
many  useful  products,  such  as  milk,  but- 
ter, meat,  hides,  and  wool.    Yet  farming, 
when  compared  with  other 
occupations,   is   much   less 
important    in    the    British 
Isles  than  in  any  other  lead- 
ing  country,    and   far   too 
little   food  is  produced   to 
feed  the  people. 

Some  travelers  going  from 
America  to  the  British  Isles 
5.  Some  of  the  ^^ave  the  vessel 
attractions  of      at  Queenstowu, 

Ireland  ^^  ' 

Ireland.  l*rom 
there  they  go  to  Cork  (Fig. 
205) ,  then  northeast  to  Dub- 
lin, the  capital,  and  across 
the  Irish  Sea  to  Liverpool  or 
Glasgow.  Trace  the  route. 
The  country  is  charming 
because  the  frequent  rains 
keep  all  the  vegetation  espe- 


cially green.  Ireland  is  often 
called  the  Emerald  Isle 
because  of  this  rich  color. 
Lakes  are  numerous  there, 
also,  the  Killarney  Lakes 
(Fig.  206)  being  perhaps 
the  best  known.  Farming, 
rather  than  manufacturing, 
is  the  prominent  industry. 
Many  of  the  farm  products 
are  similar  to  those  of  Eng- 
land. One  of  the  principal 
differences  is  in  the  great 
amount  of  flax  grown  in 
Ireland.  Flax  is  the  mate- 
rial from  which  linen  is 
made,  and  Belfast  in  par- 
ticular is  noted  for  its  linen 
mills.  Both  Dublin  and 
Belfast  are  so  close  to  Great  Britain  that 
they  can  easily  secure  coal  and  iron. 
Many  of  their  maiitifactures  are  similar 
m 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  205.  —  The  River  Lee  at  Cork 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES 


209 


to  those  in  Liverpool  and 
Glasgow. 


1 .  Why  have  we  a  special 
interest  in  the  British  Isles? 
Review  2.  Describe  the 

questions         voyage  from 

New  York  to  Great  Britain. 
3.  Name  and  locate  three 
ports  at  which  passengers 
often  land.  4.  What  kind 
of  clothing  would  one  need 
on  the  islands  ?  5.  Tell 
about  some  of  the  interest 
ing  sights  in  London.  6.  In 
Liverpool  and  Glasgow.  7. 
In  Edinburgh  and  towns 
along  the  eastern  coast.  8. 
State  some  facts  about 
mining  in  Great  Britain.  9.  What  three 
kinds  of  manufacturing  are  especially  im- 
portant in  the  interior  cities?  10.  Name 
and  locate  two  cities  noted  for  manufac- 


Pubti>-lurs'  Photo  Servuc 

Fig.  206.  —  A  portion  of  one  of  the  Lakes  of  Killarney 
These  famous  lakes  he  in  basins  between  low  mountains  in  western 
Ireland.  The  whole  region  is  one  of  great  beauty.  There  are  many  ruins 
of  castles,  some  of  which  were  built  before  America  was  discovered.  The 
moist  climate  favors  the  growth  of  plants  and  most  of  the  movmtains  are 
covered  with  forest  from  base  to  summit. 


ture  of  steel  goods, 
woolen  manufacture, 
cotton  manufacture. 


IL  Two  noted  for 

12.  One  noted  for 

13.  Name  the  prin- 


Fig.  207.  —  A  farm  scene  in  western  Ireland 
What  indications  do  you  see  that  this  country  is  well  watered? 


cipal  farm  products.  14.  What  are  some  of 

the  attractions  of  Ireland? 

J         1.  Make  a   list   of  good 

books  whose  authors  lived 

in   the   British      suggestions 

Isles.     2.  People       for  extra 

from  England 
are  called  English;  what  are 
those  from  Ireland  called? 
From  Scotland?  From 
Wales?  3.  What  waters  sep- 
arate Great  Britain  from 
the  continent?  What  is  the 
shortest  distance  across?  It 
is  said  that  Britain  has 
escaped  many  wars  by  this 
separation  from  the  conti- 
nent. How  can  that  be 
true?  4.  Describe  the 
launching  of  a  ship. 


2in 


EUROPE 


^\ 


^J 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  208.  —  An  airplane  view  of  a  part  of  Paris 
Note  the  irregular  streets,  and  the  trees  along  the  famous  boulevards.    What  is  the  stream  that  flows  through 
the  center  of  the  picture? 

2.    France 


Our  soldiers 
in  France 

1.  How  they 
reached  the 
fighting  line 


More  than  two  million  of  our  men 
went  to  France  as  soldiers  in  1917  and 
1918.  A  few  sailed  directly  to 
Havre  (Fig.  201),  the  port  of 
Paris  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine 
River.  There  they  took  train 
for  Paris,  since  the  river  is  too 
shallow  for  large  ocean  vessels,  or  directly 
for  the  field  of  battle.  Others  landed  at 
Cherbourg  or  Brest,  or  even  as  far  south 
as  Bordeaux,  wherever  there  was  room  in 
the  crowded  harbors  or  wherever  the 
course  seemed  safest  from  German  sub- 
marines. Some  went  to  England  and  then 
crossed  over  to  Calais  or  Boulogne.  Trace 
the  route  from  New  York,  and  locate 
these  French  ports. 


saw  in  and 
about  Paris 


New  York  and  London  are  the  only 
cities  in  the  world  that  are  larger  than 
Paris,  but  Paris  is  very  differ-  2.  what  they 
ent  from  either.  Its  principal 
streets  are  broader,  the  most 
noted  being  the  avenue  called  Champs 
Elysees  (Fig.  209).  The  buildings  are  of 
a  uniform  height,  contrasting  strikingly 
with  those  in  New  York  as  shown  in  Fig. 
67;  and  the  Seine  River,  which  runs 
through  the  city,  is  crossed  by  many 
beautiful  bridges.  The  street  life,  also, 
is  more  interesting,  partly  because  there 
is  more  of  it.  For  example,  many  of  the 
restaurants  serve  their  customers  out  of 
doors  in  summer;  the  wide  sidewalks 
in  front  are  filled  with  tables  and  chairs. 


FRANCE 


211 


Two  of  the  most  noted  churches  are  the 
Madeleine,  modeled  after  a  Greek  temple, 
and  Notre  Dame.  The  mansion  of  the 
president  of  the  republic,  corresponding 
to  our  White  House  at  Washington,  may 
be  seen  there ;  and  there  are  several  former 
palaces  that  are  now  used  as  museums  or 
picture  galleries,  in  w^hich  some  of  the 
finest  paintings  and  sculptures  in  the 
world  are  exhibited.  One  of  these  is 
called  the  Louvre.  The  most  famous 
suburb  is  Versailles,  where  the  Peace 
Commission  sat  that  ended  the  World 
War  (Fig.  210).  Ask  some  of  your  soldier 
friends  what  they  saw  in  Paris  and  what 
they  thought  of  the  city. 

Our  soldiers  could  not  have  been  greatly 
surprised  at  the  climate,  for  it  is  similar  to 
■r-r     T,      ,      our  own.   On  the  western  coast 

How  French       .     . 

farming  com-    it  IS  mild  and  damp  hke  that 
pares  with  our  q£  q^j.  q^^  western  coast,  ow- 

own  _  ^  ' 

ing  to  the  westerly  winds  from 
across  the  Atlantic.  The  far- 
ther inland  one  goes,  the 
warmer  it  gets  in  summer  and  the  colder  in 
winter.  In  the  section  where  most  of  our 
troops  were  quartered,  both  seasons  are 
much  like  those  in  southern  New  York, 
though  perhaps  a  Uttle  milder.  South- 
eastern France,  however,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  is  semi- 
tropical,  like  southern  California  and 
Florida.  The  products,  also,  are  similar 
to  our  own:  cattle  and  sheep;  wheat,  corn, 
oats,  rye,  and  vegetables;  fruits  such  as 
we  know,  and  an  especially  large  quantity 
of  grapes  (Fig.  211).  Along  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  in  the  section  called  the 
Riviera,  oranges,  lemons,  olives,  and  figs 
are  common. 

There  are  two  striking  differences  be- 
tween France  and  the  United  States  in 


1.  The  climate 
and  products 


the  farming.  One  concerns  the  size  of 
the  farms.  Many  of  the  French  farms 
contain  no  more  than  two  and  2.  important 
one  half  acres;  and  nearly  one  differences 
fifth  of  the  land  is  in  farms  of  less  than 
twenty-five  acres.  What  is  the  usual  size 
in  your  state?  The  other  difference  con- 
cerns the  place  where  the  farmers  live. 
They  do  not  have  their  houses  on  their 
land,  but  live  in  small  villages  and  go  out 
into  the  country  only  to  work.  What 
advantages  and  disadvantages  do  you  see 
in  such  a  plan?  Would  it  be  advisable  to 
try  to  introduce  it  into  our  country? 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Exving  Galloway 

Fig.  209.  —  The  Champs  Elysees,  Paris 

The  area  of  France  is  212,700  square 
miles  and  its  population  is  nearly  41,- 
476,000.  Compare  these  figures  with 
the  corresponding  figures  for  Great  Brit- 
ain (p.  310).  The  proportion  of  France 
that  is  level  enough  for  cultivation  is 
larger  than  in  England.   Locate  the  prin- 


212 


EUROPE 


cipal    plains   and   highlands   (Fig.   201). 

More  than  one  half  of  all  French  workers 
are  farmers,  while  in  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  the  farmers  are  less 
than  one  fourth  of  the  popu- 
lation. Four  out  of  five  of  the 
French  farmers  own  the  land 
they    cultivate.      How    must 

these  facts   affect  the  amount   of  farm 

products  that  they  raise? 


Why  the 
French  are 
more  inde- 
pendent than 
the  British  in 
their  food 
supply 


namely,    the     manufacture     of     cotton, 
woolen,  and  linen  goods. 

The  making  of  silk  goods  is  a  fourth 
textile  industry  of  importance,  particu- 
larly in  the  Rhone  Valley.  The  raw 
material  for  silk  is  obtained  from  cocoons 
spun  by  a  caterpillar  called  the  silkworm. 
Each  of  the  cocoons  is  made  of  a  tiny 
silk  thread  several  hundred  yards  long, 
looking  somewhat  like  the  thread  of  a 


Fig.  210.  —  The  Hall  of  Mirrors  in  the  palace  at  Versailles 
It  was  in  this  beautiful  room  that  the  treaty  of  peace  closing  the  World  War  was  signed. 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 


Northern  France  resembles  northern 
England  in  its  mining  and  manufacturing. 
Minin  and      ^  large  part  of  the  coal  and 


iron  mined  in  France  comes 
from  its  northern  part;  and 
the  same  three  textile  indus- 
tries are  prominent  there  that 
are  prominent  in  the  United  Kingdom, 


manufactur- 
ing compared 
with  those  in- 
dustries in 
England 


spider's  web.  The  silk  industry  depends 
upon  these  worms,  which  require  much 
care.  Their  principal  food  is  the  leaf  of 
the  mulberry  tree,  which  is  cultivated  in 
large  groves  in  the  Rhone  Valley;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  raw  silk  is  imported 
from  other  countries,  especially  Italy, 
Japan,  and  China.  The  leaves  are  plucked 


FRANCE 


213 


from  the  trees  and  fed  to  the  worms;  and 
when  the  caterpillars  reach  the  right  stage 
they  spin  the  cocoons.  After  these  have 
been  softened  in  hot  water,  the  threads 
are  unwound,  and  then  wound  upon 
spools.  They  are  later  made  into  silk 
thread,  which  is  then  woven  into  ribbons, 
cloth,  and  other  silk  goods.  The  center  of 


Saar  Basin  (Fig.  201),  which  will  greatly 
increase  her  coal  supply. 

The  cities  in  Great  Britain  that  rank 
next  in  size  to  London  are  on  the  west 

coast,   where   they   can   best  ^he  two  cities 
trade    with    America.      One  next  to  Paris 
might  expect,  therefore,  that  >"  ^"^P^'-t^"^^ 
the  French  cities  ranking  next  to  Paris 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  211.  —  Vineyards  in  France 
One  of  the  great  industries  of  France  is  wine  making. 
The  land  in  the  grape-growing  regions  is  so  valuable  that 
nearly  every  square  foot  is  used.  The  vines  are  kept 
short.  Pruned  vines  grow  better  grapes  and  the  vine- 
yards are  thus  more  easily  handled. 

the  industry  is  Lyon  (Fig.  201),  the  lead- 
ing silk-manufacturing  city  in  Europe. 

Before  the  World  War,  however, 
France  was  seriously  hindered  in  manu- 
facturing by  lack  of  coal.  She  mined  only 
a  small  fraction  of  the  amount  mined  in 
England,  and  partly  on  that  account  her 
manufacturing  was  much  less.  But  as  a 
result  of  the  war  she  has  been  granted 
the  use  of  extensive  coal  mines  in  the 


c)  Vnderifood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  212.  —  Household  spinning  in  Brittany 
The  northwestern  part  of  France  is  called  Brittany. 
There  are  many  very  old-fashioned  homes  in  France. 
This  one  room  serves  as  a  living  room,  kitchen,  and  bed- 
room. Do  you  see  the  bed?  The  open  fire  is  used  for 
cooking  and  heating. 

would  be  on  the  west  coast.  Yet  they 
are  not;    they   are  Marseille  i.  Advantages 
(Fig.  213)  and  Lyon,  one  on  <^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
the  Mediterranean  coast  and  the  other  in 
the  Rhone  Valley. 

France  imports  much  smaller  quantities 
of  food  and  raw  materials  for  manufac- 
ture from  the  west  than  does  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  she  exports  smaller  quantities 
of  manufactured  goods;  consequently  her 


214 


EUROPE 


seaports  on  the  Atlantic  are  much  smaller. 
On  the  other  hand,  she  has  an  extensive 
trade  with  •  the  Mediterranean  countries 
and  the  Orient  by  way  of  the  Rhone  Val- 
ley, which  has  always  been  the  main  route 


it,  in  Africa,  are  Algeria,  Tunis,  and 
Morocco,  important  colonies  of  France, 
whose  trade  with  the  mother  country 
naturally  passes  through  this  port.  What 
route  would  goods  bound  for  London 
from  points  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  be  likely  to 
take  if  they  did  not  go  up 
the  Rhone  Valley? 


©  E.  M.  Newman 


Fig.  213.  —  Aerial  ferry,  Marseille 


This  ferry,  hanging  from  overhead  cables,  carries  passengers,  carts,  and 
automobiles  from  one  side  of  the  harbor  channel  to  the  other. 


between  those  regions  and  northwestern 
Europe.  In  Fig.  201,  trace  the  course 
that  goods  might  take  up  the  Rhone  River 
to  Paris.  Note  how  the  rivers  of  France 
are  connected  by  canals.  Can  Paris  be 
reached  from  Marseille  by  water?  Lyon 
and  Marseille  owe  their  growth  largely 
to  this  commerce. 

Lyon  is  not  only  a  center  for  silk ;  it  has 
extensive  metal  manufactures  as  well. 
It  is  not  far  from  coal  and 
iron  mines,  and  makes  more 
automobiles  than  any  other 
French  city. 

Marseille    is    the    leading    seaport    of 
France.    Across  the  Mediterranean  from 


2.  Their  indus' 
tries  and 
commerce 


1.  Name  and  locate  the 
principal  ports  of   France. 

2.    How  is   Paris  Review 

different  from  questions 
New  York  and  London?  3. 
Name  some  of  the  noted 
buildings  and  other  attrac- 
tions of  Paris.  4.  Compare 
the  climate  and  farm  prod- 
ucts of  France  mth  those  of 
the  United  States.  5.  State 
two  differences  between 
them.  What  makes  the 
French  more  independent . 
than  the  British  in  regard 
to  food  supply?  7.  Compare 
mining  and  manufacturing  in  France  with 
these  occupations  in  Great  Britain.  8. 
Tell  about  the  silk  industry  of  France. 
9.  Why  are  the  cities  on  the  west  coast 
of  France  less  important  than  those  on 
the  west  coast  of  Great  Britain?  10. 
Show  the  advantage  of  the  location  of 
Lyon  and  Marseille.  11.  State  some  facts 
about  their  industries  and  commerce. 

1.  How  much  of  the  boundary  of 
France  is  natural?  2.  About  how  far  is 
Paris  from  the  Belgian  bound-  suggestions 
ary?  The  Spanish  boundary?  for  extra 
3.  Find  or  mark  off  a  plot  of 
ground  that  contains  only  two  or  three 
acres.     4.  Make   a   collection  of  photo- 


GERMANY 


215 


graphs  taken  in  and  about  Paris.  5. 
Soften  a  cocoon  in  warm  water  and  see 
if  you  can  unwind  the  thread.  6.  Show 
that  when  a  hole  is  broken  into  a  cocoon, 
its  value  for  silk  is  destroyed.  7.  Draw 
an  outline  of  France  and  put  in  the  prin- 


cipal highlands,  rivers,  and  cities.  8. 
How  far  is  it  from  Paris  to  London? 
How  far  from  Paris  to  Berlin?  9.  Locate 
on  Fig.  201  as  many  places  as  you  can 
that  were  the  scenes  of  battles  in  the 
World  War. 


3.    Germany 


How  Ger- 
many com- 
pares with 
California  in 
area,  popula- 
tion, and  size 
of  cities 

ence,    for 


The  countries  of  Europe  are  so  im- 
portant that  we  often  forget  how  small 
they  are.     Germany,  for  ex- 
ample,  is  now  only  a  little 
larger  than  California. 

In  population, 
however,  there 
is  a  vast  differ- 
Germany  has 
about  sixteen  times  as  many 
inhabitants,  or  a  little  more 
than  55,000,000.  How 
much  more  is  that  than  one 
half  of  the  entire  population 
of  the  United  States?  How 
crowded  California  would 
be  if  it  contained  so  many 
people! 

As    might   be    expected, 
German}'   contains  many 
large  cities.    There  are  only 
three    cities    in    California 
with  a  population  of  more 
than  100,000,  and  only  two 
of  them  contain  more  than 
500,000  each.    In  Germany, 
however,  there  are  scores  of  such  cities. 
The  largest  German  city  is  Berlin,  the  cap- 
ital, with  nearly  2,000,000.    Others  are 
Hamburg,    Cologne,    Leipzig,     Dresden, 
Breslau,  and  Munich.    Locate  these  cities 
on  Fig.  201.     Show  whether  or  not  they 
are  well  distributed  over  the  country. 


How  can  so  small  a  country  support  so 
many   people?     How    can   it    How  so  many 
feed  them?    This  question  is    people  get 
especially    serious   when   one    ®^**"sh  to  eat 
understands  how  unfavorable  some  of  the 


in  1789 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Ewing  Gallouay 

Fig.  214.  —  The  Brandenburg  Gate  in  Berlin 

This  famous  gate  forms  one  of  the  entrances  to  the  city.    It  was  erected 
The  gate  is  85  feet  high. 

conditions  are  for  farming.  The  rainfall 
is  sufficient  in  all  parts,  being  heaviest 
in  the  west  and  decreasing  toward  the 
east  until  it  is  only  about  twenty-five 
inches.  You  can  easily  explain  this  de- 
crease, since  the  rain-bearing  winds  come 
from  the  Atlantic.     Yet  there  is  enough 


21C 


EUROPE 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  215. —  Natives  of  Bavaria 
Bavaria  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  highland  regions  of  Germany. 


rain  everywhere  for  the  usual  crops  of 
the  temperate  zones.  The  temperature 
also  is  favorable;  for  the  summers  are 
nearly  as  hot  as  those  in  our  Northeast- 
ern States. 

But  there  are  two  difficulties.  In  Fig. 
201  you  can  see  that  almost  one  half  the 
area  is  mountainous  or  hilly.  In  the  ex- 
treme south  the  mountains  reach  an  alti- 
tude of  more  than  5,000  feet,  but  they 
decrease  in  height  toward  the  north.  A 
large  part  of  this  mountainous  area  is  too 
rough  for  farming  and  is  covered  with 
forest. 

The  northern  part  is  a  great  plain,  level 
enough  for  farming;  but  much  of  it  is  too 
sandy  for  profitable  cultivation.  Partly  for 
that  reason  there  are  extensive  forests 
there  also;  and  much  of  the  land  used  for 
farms  is  cultivated  at  a  disadvantage. 

In  spite  of  these  drawbacks,  Germany 
is  a  noted  farming  country.  The  people 
are  careful  to  cultivate  as  much  of  the 


land  as  possible,  and  they 
fertilize  the  soil  far  more 
extensively  than  we  do. 
Their  most  important  prod- 
ucts are  rye,  oats,  wheat, 
and  barley,  potatoes  and 
other  vegetables,  sugar 
beets,  and  grapes.  Rye 
holds  the  place  there  that 
wheat  does  in  our  country; 
and  most  of  the  people  eat 
rye  bread,  often  called  black 
bread.  Many  prefer  it  to 
wheat  bread.  Germany 
leads  the  world  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar  beets,  and 
is  noted  for  her  vineyards. 

Only  about  one  third  of 
the  population,  however, 
finds  employment  at  farming  and,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  English  (p.  208),  large 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  216.  —  Picking  onion  seed  in  Germany 


GERMANY 


217 


Why  Ger- 
many has 
been  able  to 
develop 


sively 


1.  Conditions 
favoring  metal 
manufactures 


amounts  of  food  must  be  imported.  We 
send  the  Germans  dried  fruits,  wheat, 
corn,  meat,  and  a  large  quantity  of  lard. 
They  are  able  to  pay  for  such  imports  by 
other  goods  that  they  produce. 

Germany  has  ranked  among  the  lead- 
ing manufacturing  countries  of  the  world. 
One  reason  for  this  is  that  so 
few  of  the  people  could  farm; 
the  others  had  to  do  some- 
m^^'Sacturing  thing  else  to  make  a  hving. 
very  exten-  But  there  were  many  condi- 
tions favorable  to  manufac- 
turing. For  example,  coal  is 
abundant;  before  the  war. 
Great  Britain  was  the  only 
country  of  Europe  that  produced  more 
coal  than  Germany;  and  no  other  Euro- 
pean country  mined  so  much  iron  ore. 
Recalling  the  great  importance  of  coal 
and  iron  ore  in  the  industries  of  our 
Northeastern  States  (p.  77),  you  can 
realize  their  importance  for  Germany. 
In  Fig.  201  you  see  the  names  of  several 
cities  just  north  of  Cologne  and  east  of 
the  Rhine  River.  How  manj^  can  you 
count  there  close  together?  They  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  iron  and  steel  manu- 
facture, that  section  being  one  of  the 
great  centers  in  the  world  for  this  in- 
dustry. With  what  two  sections  in  the 
United  States  can  you  compare  it  (pp. 
78  and  115)?  With  what  part  of  Great 
Britain  (p.  203)? 

Germany  closely  resembles  our  North- 
eastern States  in  its  manufacturing.  You 
have  seen  how  Pennsylvania  and  the 
surrounding  states  produce  iron  and  steel 
and  heavy  articles  made  from  them.  You 
have  seen,  also,  how  New  England,  being 
farther  away  from  the  coal  and  iron  sup- 
ply,   makes    lighter    articles    of     metal 


(p.  78).  Germany  manufactures  both  the 
heavy  and  the  light  articles  in  large 
quantities;  for  example,  engines,  boilers, 
steel  plates  for  ships,  and  hardware.  Be- 
fore the  war  she  was  widely  noted  for  her 
excellent  knives,  scissors,  needles,  and 
microscopes.      She    has    imported    large 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  217.  —  Painting  dolls'  heads  and  arms  in  a 
German  toy  factory 

In  some  portions  of  Germany  great  quantities  of  toys 
and  Christmas  goods  are  made.  These  women  are  paint- 
ing dolls'  heads  and  arms.  In  the  basket  are  hundreds  of 
arms.    Many  German  toys  are  sold  in  the  United  States. 

amounts  of  copper  from  us  to  be  used  in 
connection  with  metal  manufactures. 

Again,   like   New   England,   Germany 
has  developed  the  textile  in-  ^  other  leadin 
dustry  extensively,  including  Mndsofmanu- 

1  n  ft  factxiring 

the   manufacture    of    cotton, 

woolen,  and  silk  goods.    Nearly  all  of  her 


218 


EUROPE 


Fig.  218.  — Bremen 
What  river  is  this  ?     (See  Fig.  201.) 

raw  cotton  is  obtained  from  us,  and  she 

exports  lace  and  other  textiles  to  us.    In 

addition  to  all  these  things, 

she    produces   about    three 

times  as  much  beet  sugar 

as  we  do  and  makes  a  great 

quantity  of  beer  and  wine. 
Other  conditions,  also, 

have  been  favorable  to  Ger- 
many. For  ex- 
ample, her  cen- 
tral position 
in    closer    touch 

with  the  leading  nations  of 

Europe    than    any    other 

country.  What  nations  bor- 
der her  (Fig.  201)? 
At  the  same  time  she  has 

a  direct  outlet  to  the  sea, 

her  two  leading  ports  being 

Hamburg  and  Bremen  (Fig. 

218).     Locate  them.    Note 

the  number  of  ports  on  the 

Baltic  Sea  also.    They  are 


more  likely  to  be  blocked  by 
ice  in  winter  than  the  others. 
Can  you  suggest  why? 
Trace  the  route  from  these 
ports  around  Denmark  to 
the  North  Sea.  Locate  the 
Kiel  Canal  across  the  south- 
ern part  of  this  peninsula. 
Estimate  the  distance  that 
it  saves. 

The  rivers  are  another 
important  aid  to  German 
commerce,  since  they  are 
navigable  for  a  good  part  of 
their  length.  In  what  di- 
rection do  most  of  them 
flow?  What  are  the  names 
of  the  larger  ones  flowing 
north?  The  Rhine  (Fig.  219)  is  the  most 
important,  although  neither  its  source  nor 


3.  Conditions 
favoring  trans- 
portation 

puts    her 


Ewing  OaUoway 


Photo  by  Elmendorf 

Fig.  219. — Scenery  along  the  Rhine 
Along  the  Rhine,  chiefly  on  the  hilltops  but  now  and  then  close  to  the 
water,  are  the  ruins  of  castles  hundreds  of  years  old. 


SWITZERLAND 


219 


its  mouth  is  in  Germany.  In  Avhat  coun- 
tries are  they?  Why  might  the  Germans 
regret  that  the  mouth  is  not  in  German 
territory?  What  reasons  can  you  see  for 
the  importance  of  the  Rhine?  Recall 
what  was  said  about  manufacturing 
along  its  course;  also,  note  the  number 
of  cities  upon  it,  and  the  location  of  its 
mouth. 

The  Danube  River  flows  across  south- 
ern Germany  and  eastward  into  the 
Black  Sea.  Trace  its  course  in  Fig.  197. 
It  is  connected  by  canal  with  the  Main 
River,  which  flows  into  the  Rhine.  Thus 
boats  can  travel  all  the  way  from  the  North 
Sea  to  the  Black  Sea.  What  advantage 
for  Germany  do  you  see  in  this  fact? 


1.  Compare  Germany  with  California 
in  area;  in  population;  in  number  of 
Review  large  cities.      2.  How  are  the 

questions  conditions  in  Germany  un- 
favorable to  farming?  3.  Name  the 
principal  farm  products.    What  food  does 


Germany  buy  of  us?  4.  What  important 
minerals  are  found  in  Germany?  5.  How 
does  she  resemble  our  Northeastern  States 
in  manufacturing?  6.  What  advantages 
for  commerce  are  secured  by  the  position 
of  Germany?    7.  By  her  rivers? 

1.  Germans  on  the  average  eat  about 
one  half  as  much  sugar  as  we  do.  What 
explanation  can  you  find  for      e 

Y  ^  Suggestions 

this  fact?  2.  Follow  the  course  for  extra 
that  goods  might  take  from  ^°*^ 
New  York  across  Germany  by  water  to 
the  Black  Sea.  3.  Draw  an  outline  map 
of  Germany,  showing  the  boundaries,  the 
principal  rivers  and  cities,  and  the  coun- 
tries bordering  it.  4.  Between  what  two 
routes  must  ships  choose,  in  order  to 
reach  the  ocean  from  Hamburg?  Which 
is  probably  the  more  used?  Why?  In 
either  case,  how^  near  to  Great  Britain 
must  the  ships  approach?  Do  you  see 
any  reason  why  the  Germans  might  re- 
gard it  a  disadvantage  to  have  to  pass 
so  close  to  Great  Britain? 


4.    Switzerland 


Switzerland,  in  the  center  of  Europe,  is 
often  called  the  playground  of  that  conti- 
nent and  America  because  so 

land  isThr*^'  ^lauy  touristS  go  there  to  en- 
favorite  coun-  joy  the  scenery  and  climate, 
for  touri"ts^^  ^^  the  lofty  Alps  is  some  of  the 
grandest  scenery  in  the  world. 
The  mountains,  rising  in  the  path  of  the 
west  winds,  cause  a  very  heavy  rainfall, 
much  of  which  turns  to  snow  and  ice.  The 
many  snow-covered  peaks,  being  so  white 
and  high,  look  Hke  distant  clouds.  The 
great  quantities  of  snow  have  formed 
glaciers,  which  move  slowly  down  the 
vallevs  like  rivers  of  ice.    Below  the  snow 


line  the  ice  melts,  and  streams  and  lakes 
are  numerous.  The  lower  slopes  are  fer-. 
tile,  and  in  spring  and  summer  the  grass- 
covered  valleys  are  brilliant  with  flowers. 
The  high  altitude  gives  Switzerland  a 
cool  climate,  and  tourists  enjoy  especially 
the  outdoor  life.  The  dry,  bracing  air  is 
also  helpful,  so  that  many  go  there  to 
regain  their  health.  One  of  the  chief 
pleasures  is  mountain-climbing,  which  is 
sometimes  dangerous  as  well  as  exciting. 
Many  persons  spend  their  winter  vaca- 
tions there  in  order  to  take  part  in  such 
sports  as  skating,  skiing  (Fig.  222),  and 
tobogganing. 


220 


EUROPE 


Only  the  most  sturdy  people  can  climb 
the  higher  mountains,  for  it  is  a  difficult 
The  ascent  ^^^  dangerous  task.  Mont 
of  Mont  Blanc,  the  highest  peak  in  the 

Blanc  Alps,  is  oftcu  chosen  for  this 

sport.    What   is    its   height    (Fig.    201)? 
Though  its   summit   is   just   across   tlie 


Photo  bij  FublUhers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  220.  —  A  bit  of  Swiss  scenery 
Beautiful  waterfalls,  cliffs  with  varied  colored  rocks, 
deep  gorges,  glaciers,  and  forests  are  the  attractions  of 
Switzerland  to  many  tourists. 

border  in  France,  its  lower  slopes  are  in 
Switzerland  and  the  climb  is  started  in 
that  country.  Strangers  wishing  to  climb 
it  dare  not  go  alone;  they  must  employ 
guides,  to  show  them  the  way  and  help 
them  over  the  worst  places. 

The  round  trip  usually  takes  two  nights 
and  three  days;  and  as  there  is  no  place 
to  obtain  food,  it  is  necessary  to  carry  it. 


Overcoats  and  blankets  are  also  needed; 
for  even  though  the  journey  be  made  in 
the  hottest  summer  weather,  it  is  bitterly 
cold  upon  the  mountain  top. 

Suppose  that  we  are  making  such  a 
journey.  We  start  early  in  the  morning,  so 
as  to  have  a  long  day.  Each  of  us  carries 
a  few  light  articles,  but  the  guides  and 
porters  take  most,  for  they  are  strong 
and  used  to  cHmbing.  At  first  we  walk 
along  a  pleasant  path  in  a  beautiful 
wood;  now  and  then  a  house  is  passed, 
and  perhaps  a  green  field,  but  soon  there 
are  no  more  houses  or  tilled  fields,  and 
we  meet  no  people.  The  trees  become 
smaller  and  smaller,  until  the  line  is 
reached  above  which  it  is  so  cold  that  no 
trees  can  grow.  This  is  called  the  tree 
line  or  timber  line. 

From  this  point  on,  no  plants  larger 
than  bushes  are  seen,  and  after  a  while 
even  these  disappear.  Meanwhile  the 
soil  and  grass  have  become  more  scarce, 
while  here  and  there  banks  of  snow  are 
found  in  the  shady  hollows.  Soon  we 
have  climbed  to  the  snow  line.  This  is 
the  line  above  which  snow  is  found  all  the 
year  round.  Now,  no  matter  in  what 
direction  we  look,  rocks  and  snow  are 
everywhere  to  be  seen,  and  the  snow  is 
often  twenty  or  more  feet  in  depth  (Fig. 
221). 

What  a  wonderful  view  is  before  us! 
It  repays  us  for  all  the  hard  work.  We 
look  down  upon  the  woods  through 
which  we  have  just  passed,  and  over  them 
to  the  deep  valleys,  with  the  green  fields, 
pretty  houses,  and  villages  far  below  us. 
Beyond  are  seen  other  steep  mountains 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley. 

A  guide  takes  his  place  in  front  of  us, 
and  often  tells  us  to  stop  while  he  goes 


SWITZERLAND 


221 


ahead  to  examine  the  way.     It  may  be 

that    the   snow   has   bridged    over   and 

hidden  a  deep  and  narrow  chasm,  and 

if  we  were  to  step  upon  this  snow  bridge, 

we    might    break    through 

and  fall  a  hundred  feet  or 

more.  Sometimes  the  guides 

lift  us  over  a  dangerous 

place;  and  when  it  is  steep 

or  slippery,  they  fasten  all 

the  members  of  the  party 

together  with  ropes,  so  that 

if   one   starts    to   fall,   the 

others  may  hold  him. 

As  we  advance  higher  and 
higher,  it  is  often  necessary 
to  take  a  narrow  path  on 
che  steep  side  of  the  moun- 
tain. On  the  right  we  can 
look  hundreds  of  feet  almost 
straight  downward;  on  the 
left  are  huge  stones  and 
masses  of  snow  almost  di- 
rectly overhead. 

The  snow  sometimes 
slips,  forming  snow  slides, 
or  avalanches,  which  are 
very  dangerous.  They  come 
tearing  down  the  sides  of 
the  mountains  with  a  ter- 
rible roar,  at  times  burying 
whole  villages  beneath 
them.  You  have  seen  the 
same  thing,  on  a  much 
smaller  scale,  when  snow 
has  slid  from  the  roofs  of 
houses  on  warm  winter  days. 

After  one  night  spent  in 
a  Uttle  house  about  half  way  up  the  moun- 
tain side,  and  after  much  hard  work  on 
the  next  day,  we  reach  the  summit.   Here, 
in  spite  of  our  heavy  wraps,  we  are  all 


shivering,  for  it  is  freezing  cold  upon  high, 
mountain  tops  and  there  are  often  fierce 
winds  which  seem  to  go  through  even  the 
thickest  clothing. 


ly 


UnderxDood  and  Unden':ood 

Fig.  221.  —  The  ascent  of  Mont  Blanc 
The  party  of  mountain-climbers  is  resting  at  a  point  known  as  the  Grand 
Plateau,  13,000  feet  above  the  'sea.    Beyond  is  seen  the  snowy  summit. 
The  climbers  are  equipped  with  ice-axes,  packs,  and  snow-glasses. 

On  this  barren  mountain  top  there  are 
no  birds,  no  trees,  no  grass — nothing  but 
snow  and  rock.  But  if  it  is  a  clear  daj^ 
and  there  are  no  clouds  clinging  to  the 


222 


EUROPi: 


©  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  222.  ^  A  skiing  party  mountain-climbing  in  Switzerland 

mountain  sides  below  us,  we  may  be  able 
to  look  down  into  the  beautiful  green 
valleys  onl}'  a  few  miles  away.  There 
the  birds  are  singing,  flowers  are  bloom- 
ing, and  men  working  in  the  fields  are 
complaining  of  the  heat. 

Before    the    World    War    more    than 

3,000,000  persons  visited  Switzerland  each 

,  year.    Probably  on  the  aver- 

Importance  of  ,  ,  i    ^  ^ 

the  totirist  in-  age  cach  spent  not  less  than 
dustryto         150   on   hotel   bills,    raUroad 

Switzerland  ' 

fares,  and  amusements  while 
in  the  country.  You  can  estimate,  there- 
fore, the  amount  of  money  their  visits 
brought  to  Switzerland. 

It  is  known  that  considerably  over  one 
third  of  this  sum  was  spent  on  hotel  bills 
alone.  No  wonder  that  the  accommoda- 
tion of  tourists  ranks  as  a  great  industry 
there!  There  are  over  9,000  Swiss  hotels, 
many  of  them  in  the  mountains  where 
the  scenery  is  the  grandest.  The  num- 
ber of  people  employed  in  hotels  is  second 
only  to  the  number  employed  in  the 
largest  Swiss  industry,  the  manufacture 


of    machinery   and  instru- 
ments. 

Among  the  many  beauti- 
ful   Swiss   towns    Lucerne, 

on    the    lake    of  Attractions  of 

the  same  name  lucerne 
(Fig.  224),  is  one  of  those 
most  often  visited.  Locate 
it  on  Fig.  20  L  Near  by  are 
two  famous  mountains,  Rigi 
and  Pilatus.  From  their 
summits  one  obtains  mag- 
nificent views  of  the  lake, 
over  4,000  feet  below,  bor- 
dered by  green  meadows 
and  numerous  villages.  In 
several  directions,  as  far  as 
the  eye  can  reach,  are  the  snow-covered 
crests  of  lofty  mountains  shining  in  the 
sunlight  or  lost  in  the  clouds. 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  223.  —  A  Swiss  hamlet 
Directly  back  of  this  little  village  you  see  a  glacier. 


SWITZERLAND 


228 


Another  beautiful  city  is  Geneva,  on 
a  large  lake  of  that  name  in  the  midst 
Chief  indus-  ^^  ^^^^  Alps.  It  is  especially 
tries  in  the  noted  for  its  fine  watches. 
In  northern  Switzerland  is 
Zurich,  the  largest  city,  on  Lake  Zurich, 
and  Basel,  at  the  point  where  the  Rhine 
enters  Germany.  All  three 
of  these  cities  have  good 
water  or  railroad  connec- 
tions, and  are  manufac- 
turing centers,  producing 
textiles,  jewelry,  scientific 
instruments,  and  dairy 
products.  Perhaps  you  have 
seen  a  Swiss  w  atch  or  carved 
cuckoo  clock.  The  next 
time  you  buy  milk  choco- 
late see  if  it  bears  a  Swiss 
brand. 

The  best  farmlands  of 
Switzerland  are  on  the  pla- 
Leading  kinds  teau  lying  be- 
of  farming        tween  the  Jura 

Mountains  on  the  north 
and  the  Alps  on  the  south.  In  the  valleys 
of  that  region  cereals,  vegetables,  and 
fruits  are  raised.  The  mountain  slopes 
afford  excellent  pasturage,  and  dairying 
is  far  more  important  than  other  kinds 
of  farming.  In  the  early  spring  the  cat- 
tle, sheep,  and  goats  are  driven  up  the 
slopes  of  the  valleys  as  the  snow  and  ice 
melt  and  new  grazing  lands  are  exposed. 
Such  a  pasture  is  called  an  alp,  and  from 
it  the  chief  mountains  have  received  their 
name.  The  herders  remain  far  up  in  the 
mountains  all  summer,  living  in  log  huts, 
watching  the  flocks  and  making  cheese 
from  the  milk.  In  the  fall  the  herds  are 
driven  back  to  the  valleys  to  be  stall-fed 
during  the  winter.     What  pleasures  and 


hardships   do   you   see  in   the   life  of   a 
herder  in  this  mountainous  country? 


1.  Wliy   is    Switzerland    the   favorite 
country  of  Europe  for  tourists?         Review 
2.  Show  tlie  importance  of  the         questions 
tourist   industr}'   there.     3.  Give  an  ac- 


©  Ewing  Galloway 


Fig,  224.  —  Lake  Lucerne 


count  of  the  ascent  of  Mont  Blanc.  4. 
How  is  the  region  about  Lucerne  espe- 
cially attractive?  5.  Name  the  principal 
cities  and  their  leading  industries.  6. 
What  are  the  leading  kinds  of  farming? 
1.  What  effect  did  the  World  War  have 
upon  the  tourist  trade  of  Switzerland? 
Why?  2.  Compare  Switzer-  suggestions 
land  with  your  own  state  in  for  extra 
area  and  population.  3.  Read  ^°^ 
the  story  of  William  Tell.  4.  The  Swiss 
people  living  next  to  France  speak  French; 
those  next  to  Germany  speak  German; 
and  those  next  to  Italy,  Italian.  What 
disadvantages  do  you  see  in  having  three 
languages?  5.  What  large  rivers  rise  in 
Switzerland?    Trace  their  couraes. 


224 


EUROPE 


5.    Belgium  and  The  Netherlands 


These  two  countries  have  far  more  im- 
portance than  their  size  suggests.    They 
are  the  principal  gateway  to 

Importance  of  if.  .i  •    ^      •  e 

the  location  of  and     irom    the    mterior    oi 
these  coun-      Europe.   East  and  southeast 

tnes 

of  them  are  many  nations 
that  want  goods  from  England  and  across 
the  Atlantic,  and  that  send  goods  to  both 
of  those  regions. 


Fig. 


©  Press  Illustratino  Service 

225.  —  A  view  of  Rotterdam 


The  Rhine  River  is  a  natural  highway 
for  the  transportation  of  such  goods;  its 
connection  with  the  Danube,  as  we  have 
seen  (p.  219),  provides  a  water  route  all 
the  way  to  the  Black  Sea.  There  is  no 
such  easy  route  across  France  toward  the 
east;  and  the  route  by  way  of  Bremen  or 
Hamburg  is  less  direct.  Estimate  the 
distance  from  the  coast  of  Belgium  to 
Hamburg.  In  addition,  the  coasts  of  The 
Netherlands  and  Belgium  have  many  ex- 
cellent harbors. 

The  above  facts  explain  why  these 
small  countries  have  three  great  ports: 
Amsterdam    and     Rotterdam     in     The 


Netherlands,  and  Antwerp  in  Belgium. 
Which  one  of  these  three  cities  is  on  the 
Rhine  River?  By  means  of  canals,  boats 
from  the  other  two  cities  can  easily  reach 
the  Rhine.  About  how  far  are  these  ports 
from  London?  Locate  the  two  other 
large  cities;  also  The  Hague  and  Brussels, 
the  capitals  of  these  two  countries.  The 
area  of  Pennsylvania  is  less  than  the 
average  area  of  our  forty- 
eight  states.  The  Nether- 
lands and  Belgium  are  each 
only  about  one  quarter  as 
large  as  Pennsylvania.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  popu- 
lation of  each  is  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  Pennsylvania. 
This  shows  that  the  people 
are  very  much  crowded, 
even  more  so  than  those  of 
Germany. 

These  two  countries  form 
a  striking  contrast  to  Penn- 
sylvania in  their 
surface  features. 
What  do  you  remember  about 
the  mountains  in  Pennsyl- 
vania (Fig.  66)  and  the  diffi- 
culty early  settlers  had  in 
crossing  them  (p.  73)?  The  surface  of 
these  two  countries  is  remarkably  level, 
only  the  southeastern  part  of  Belgium 
having  any  elevated  land.  The  highest 
point  even  there  is  only  about  1,100  feet 
above  sea  level. 

Moreover,  a  portion  of  the  land  of  The 
Netherlands  is  even  lower  than  the  level 
of  the  sea.  On  that  account  this  country 
is  often  called  Holland,  or  hollow  land. 
What  is  the  meaning  of  Nether-lands? 


How  they 
compare  with 
Pennsylvania 
in  appearance 
and  products 

1.  The  contrast 
in  appearance 


BELGIUM   AXD    THE   NETHERLANDS 


220 


Fig.  201  shows  how  large  a 
part  is  below  sea  level. 

Many  of  the  farm  prod- 
ucts of  The  Netherlands  are 

2.  The  contrast     the     SamC     aS 

in  industries  ^j^^gg  ^f  Penn- 
sylvania. The  principal 
crops  are  wheat,  oats,  and 
rye,  vegetables  and  sugar 
beets,  flowers  raised  for  seed, 
and  grass.  Dairying  is  a 
very  prominent  industry. 
The  people,  called  the 
Dutch,  send  away  great 
quantities  of  butter,  and 
Dutch  cheese  is  famous 
throughout  the  world. 

The   appearance    of   the 
farms,  however,  and  many 
of  the  methods  of  work  would  seem  very 
strange  to  us.     In  the  region  below  sea 
level  the  land  must  be  protected  from 


Phalli  1)1/  Ehiii  mlorf    ©  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  227.  —  A  knitting  lesson  in  Holland 


Pres8  lUuatraiing  Service 

Fig.  226.  -A  school  in  Holland 
These  boys  are  learning  the  silversmith's  trade. 


floods  by  high  embankments.  The  lower 
Rhine  is  kept  within  its  banks  in  the 
same  way  as  the  lower  Mississippi  River 
(p.  116);  and  as  one  approaches  Rot- 
terdam on  shipboard,  or  travels  by  boat 
through  the  lowlands,  one  sees  the  house- 
tops on  a  level  with  these  embankments, 
and  looks  downward  into  the  surrounding 
fields.  The  storks  that  may  be  seen 
resting  on  the  roofs  are  protected  by  law, 
because  they  eat  crayfish  and  other  bur- 
rowing animals  that  might  cause  leaks 
in  the  embankments,  or  dikes. 

On  such  a  trip  one  finds  the  houses 
spotlessl}"  clean.  The  people  usually 
leave  their  wooden  shoes  at  the  door,  so 
that  they  may  not  soil  the  floor  with  mud. 
Even  the  gardens  of  fruit  and  flowers  are 
in  exact  rows  and  without  a  weed.  Rain 
on  more  than  200  days  in  every  year,  to- 
gether with  the  seepage  of  water  through 
the  dikes,  keeps  the  low  ground  wet,  and 
the  water  must,  therefore,  be  pumped  out. 


226 


EUROPE 


Photo  iiy  ElmeiKiorj    ■>€;  Ewing  Galloway 


In  mining  and  manufac- 
turing Belgium  reminds  one 
of  Pennsylvania.  Like  the 
latter,  it  mines  an  enormous 
amount  of  coal,  and  much 
iron  ore  besides.  With  these 
minerals  it  manufactures 
great  quantities  of  iron  and 
steel,  and  machinery  of 
many  kinds.  Glass  is  also 
an  important  product,  just 
as  at  Pittsburgh.  Cotton 
and  woolen  mills  are  numer- 
ous, as  in  New  England; 
and  sugar  is  made  from 
sugar  beets. 


Fig.  228. — A  home  in  Holland 

The  Dutch    people  are  noted    for  their  cleanliness, 
humble  the  home,  it  is  kept  neat  and  and  free  from  dirt, 
ness  of  the  street  before  these  modest  homes. 

Windmills  are  commonly  used  for  this 
purpose,  and  are  found  near  most  houses. 
Can  you  see  how  wooden  shoes  might  be 
better  than  leather  in  such  a  country? 
Since  about  one  half  of  all  the  farmland 
in  The  Netherlands  is  in  grass,  what 
animals  would  you  expect  to  see  in  large 
numbers? 

Belgium  is  the  most  densely  populated 
country  in  Europe,  and  the  people  are, 
if  possible,  even  more  careful 
than  the  Dutch  to  make  use  of 
every  square  foot  of  ground. 
Many  of  the  farms  contain 
only  two  or  three  acres,  and  most  of  the 
work  is  done  by  hand.  For  example, 
spading  largely  takes  the  place  of  plow- 
ing. Many  of  the  crops  are  the  same  as 
in  The  Netherlands,  although  there  are 
more  sugar  beets  and  fewer  cattle,  because 
other  crops  prove  more  profitable  than 
grass. 


No  matter  how 
Notice  the  cleanli- 


1.  Explain    the   impor- 
tance of  the  location  of  The 
Netherlands  and         Review 
Belgium.  2.  How  do  they  com-        questions 
pare  in  area  and  population  with  Penn- 
sylvania?   3.   Show   their  contrast  with 


Why  Belgitmi 
might  be 
called  a  small 
Pennsylvania 


©  L'7tderwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  229.  —  Retting  flax  on  the  Schelde  River,  Belgium 

After  flax  is  cut  and  stacked,  it  is  soaked  in  clear 

water,  so  that  the  fiber  from  which  linen  is  made  may  be 

separated  easily.    This  soaking  process  is  called  retting. 


THE   SCANDINAVIAN    COUNTRIES 


227 


Pennsylvania  in  appearance.  4.  How 
does  The  Netherlands  differ  from  Penn- 
sylvania in  industries?  5.  Why  might 
Belgium  be  called  a  small  Pennsylvania? 

6.  Describe  a  home  in  The  Netherlands. 

7.  Compare  a  Dutch  farm  and  its  culti- 
vation with  a  farm  and  its  cultivation  in 
your  community. 

1.  Find  the  average  size  of  our  forty- 
eight  states  and  compare  with  the  aver- 
age size  of  these  countries.  2.  Show  that 
there  is  no  transportation  route  by  water 
across  France  equal  to  that  from  Rotter- 
dam across  Germany.  3.  Read  the  story 
about  the  little  Dutch  boy  who  saved 
many  lives  by  holding  his  hand  in  the 


leak  in  a  dike  until  help  came.  4.  There 
is  much  shipbuilding  at  Antwerp.  What 
conditions  have  favored  its  de-  g^  estions 
velopment?  5.  Secure  a  pic-  for  extra 
tureofaDutchmndmill.  Why  ^^'^ 
are  they  so  common  in  Holland?  6.  Why 
is  the  wooden  shoe  more  practical  in 
Holland  than  it  would  be  in  our  country? 
7.  Why  does  Holland  depend  so  largely 
upon  rivers  and  canals  as  means  of  trans- 
portation? 8.  If  you  were  painting  a 
picture  of  a  Dutch  scene,  tell  at  least  two 
things  you  would  put  in  it.  9.  What  are 
the  principal  farm  crops  of  The  Nether- 
lands? 10.  Locate  Amsterdam;  Rotter- 
dam;   Antwerp;    The   Hague;   Brussels. 


6.    The  Scandinavian  Countries 
{Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark) 


These  three  countries  are  closely  related 

in  language  and  customs,  and  Norway  and 

Sweden  were  for  a  long  time 

three  co^un-      United  in  One  nation.     These 

tries  are  are  knowu  as  the  Norse  na- 

closely  asso-       . .  ,,  ,    •  /.    ., 

dated  tions,  or  the  countries  oi  the 

Norsemen  or  Northmen.  The 
many  Norse  myths  came  from  this  region. 
Do  you  know  any  of  them? 

Norway  and  Sweden  are  much  larger 
than  Denmark.  The  areas  of  densest 
population  of  all  three  countries  are  close 
together.  Locate  the  three  leading  cities 
and  capitals,  Christiania,  Stockholm,  and 
Copenhagen.  If  a  triangle  were  drawn 
connecting  the  three,  which  would  be  the 
shortest  side?  How  many  miles  would  it 
represent?  What  water  would  be  included 
in  the  triangle?    How  much  land? 

The  map  shows  that  the  coast  of  Nor- 
way is  very  irregular  and  mountainous. 
The  sea  enters  the  deep  mountain  val- 


leys,  forming   long,    narrow   bays   with 

steep  walls.     Such   bays  are 

called   fiords.     Some  of    the    '^l.^^fe 

fiords  are  more  than  100  miles    western  coast 

long,  and  their  walls  2,000    JourisS'^''**' 

to  3,000  feet  high.   They  offer 

some  of  the  grandest  scenery  anywhere 

in  Europe. 

Many  Americans  visit  this  region  in 
summer.  Even  though  it  is  so  far  north, 
the  w^arm  winds  from  the  Atlantic  make 
the  voyage  delightful  in  that  season. 
Besides  the  steep  cliffs  and  deep,  quiet 
waters  of  the  fiords,  many  glaciers  are  to 
be  seen.  The  tourist  steamers  cross  the 
Arctic  circle  and  go  as  far  as  North  Cape. 
There  in  midsummer  one  can  see  the  sun 
at  midnight.  This  part  of  Norway  is 
called  the  Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun,  be- 
cause for  a  few  weeks  in  summer  the  sun 
is  in  sight  during  the  full  twenty-four 
hours  of  every  day. 


228 


EUROPE 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Ewino  Gallowa// 

Fig.  230.  — A  view  of  Skarsfos,  Norway 
The  streams  in  this  picture  are  pouring  down  into  one 
of  the  deep  fiords  along  the  coast  of  Norway. 

The  peoples  of  Norway  and  Sweden 
are  famous  sailors.  Their  ancestors,  the 
Vikings,  sailed  along  the  coast 
of  North  America  500  years 
before  Columbus  landed  here. 
What  stories  or  poems  have 
you  read  about  the  Vikings? 
Many  of  the  most  noted  and 
successful  modern  explorers 
of  the  polar  regions  are  Scandinavians. 
Can  you  name  any  of  them?  Scandina- 
vian sailors  are  found  in  nearly  every  port 
of  the  world. 

If  you  inquired  why  so  many  become 
sailors,  you  would  probably  be  told  that 
2.  The  few  oc-  ^^  ^^  because  of  lack  of  employ- 
cupations  open    ment  at  home.    A  large  part 

to  them  at  home  o      -f 

of  the  country  cannot  be  in- 
habited.   The  northern  parts  of  Norway 


Why  many 
Scandinavians 
become  sail- 
ors 

1.  How  they 
have  distin- 
guished them- 
selves on  the 
ocean 


Photo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  231.  — A  view  of  Grand  Rocks,  North  Cape 
From  this  point  on  the  northern  coast  of  Norway  the 
midnight  sim  may  be  seen  in  June  and  July. 

and  Sweden  are  too  cold  in  winter,  and 
much  of  the  interior  is  too  mountainous, 


4H 

Wjr\^ 

^rsh^kJ 

'^i--- 

^'W^IH 

lA 

1 

HHb|#^; 

K&^^^^K^e'^ 

©  Keystone  View  Co.,  I  tic. 

Fig.  232.  —  Milking  goats  at  a  home  on  Hardanger 
Fiord,  Norway 

In  many  portions  of  Europe  where  pasturage  is  too 
poor  for  cattle,  goats  are  raised  for  dairy  purposes.  Some 
of  the  famous  cheeses  of  Europe  are  made  from  goats'  milk. 


THE   SCANDINAVIAN   COUNTRIES 


229 


to  support  many  people. 
Therefore,  they  make  their 
homes  chiefly  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  peninsula 
and  near  the  coast.  Less 
than  one  fifteenth  of  the 
surface  of  Norway  can  be 
cultivated,  and  in  both 
countries  only  the  hardy 
grains  and  vegetables  can 
be  grown.  Sheep  and  cattle 
are  raised  in  large  num- 
bers. The  forests  are  exten- 
sive, so  that  lumbering  is 
important.  Examine  some 
boxes  of  safety  matches,  to 
see  if  they  have  not  come 
from  Nor\\^ay  or  Sweden.  Yet  lumbering 
is  an  industry  that  requires  few  workmen. 


Fig.  233.  —  Gothenburg  harbor,  Sweden 


©  Ewing  Galloway 


Photo  from  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Fig.  234.— Helsingfors,  the  capital  of  Finland 
What  is  the  building  on  the  left?    Read  the  sign. 


There  is  some  excellent  iron  ore;  but  the 
lack  of  coal  prevents  the  employment  of  a 
large  number  of  people  in  manufacturing. 

Denmark  has  Httle  forest,  and  is  the 
poorest  country  in  Europe  for  minerals. 
Moreover,  while  it  is  not  mountainous, 
the  soil  is  sandy  and  not  very  fertile. 
Careful  methods,  similar  to  those  used 
in  Belgium,  are  necessary  to  make  the 
ground  productive.  Dairying  and  the 
manufacture  of  dairy  products  form  the 
principal  occupations. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  sea  calls  for  a 
large  number  of  men.     Since  the  land 

produces  so  Httle,  much  of  the       3.  Attractions 

food  consists  of  fish;  and  both  "^t^e^ea 
the  North  Sea  and  the  coast  of  Norway 
are  excellent  fishing  grounds.  The  export 
of  lumber  and  iron  ore  and  the  import  of 
coal  call  for  much  transportation  by  water. 
Since  they  live  along  the  coast  and  travel 
from  town  to  town  oftener  by  water  than 
by  land,  the  people  have  become  very 
familiar  with  the  sea.  Their  abundance 
of  lumber  has  made  it  possible  for  them  to 


230 


EUROPE 


manufacture  wooden  vessels  very  cheaply. 
For  all  these  reasons,  they  have  engaged 
extensively  in  fishing  and  in  ocigan  trans- 


Fig.  235.  —  On  the  coast  of  Spitzbergen 
Norwegian  vessels  run  even  to  this  little  settlement  on  the  bleak  coast  of 
Spitzbergen  (Fig.  46). 

portation  both  for  themselves  and  for 
others,  particularly  the  Norwegians.  Nor- 
way has  a  larger  number  of  ships  in  pro- 
portion to  its  population  than  any  other 
country  in  the  world. 


1.  Describe  the  attractions  to  tourists 
of  the  western  coast  of  Norway.  2.  What 
is  the  midnight  sun?  3.  Why  Review 
do  many  Scan-  questions 
dinavians  become  sailors? 
4.  What  common  article 
do  we  use  that  comes  from 
Norway  and  Sweden?  5, 
What  is  the  chief  industry 
of  Denmark? 

1.  Do  you  see  any  reason 
for  thinking  that  the  Kiel 
Canal  may  have      o 

•^  Suggestions 

injured    Copen-      for  extra 
hagen?   2.  What     "^"'^ 
proportion  of  the   land  in 
your  state  can  be   culti- 
vated?  How  does  this  com- 
pare   wdth    Norway    and 
Sweden?    3.  Compare  Den- 
mark and  The  Netherlands  in  area,  popu- 
lation, surface,   and   products.     4.  The 
Danes  used  to  charge  toll  for  all  vessels 
entering  and  leaving  the  Baltic  Sea.  What 
reasons  can  you  see  for  such  a  practice? 


III.     Eastern  Europe 
Russia,  Finland,  Poland,  and  Neighboring  Countries 


The  government  of  Russia  has  been 
more  nearly  an  absolute  monarchy  than 

Weaknesses       ^^^    ^^^^^    ^^    Europe.       The 

of  Russia         meaning  of  the  word  absolute 

1.  Character  of   is  suggestcd  hj  some  incidents 

government   .^  ^j^^  j.^^  ^^  Peter  the  Great, 

the  ruler,  or  Czar,  of  Russia  200  j^ears  ago. 
In  1703  he  began  to  build  an  entirely 
new  city  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  which 
was  to  be  the  new  capital  in  place  of 
Moscow,  and  is  now  known  as  Petrograd 
(p.  234).  Estimate  its  distance  from 
Moscow  (Fig.  20iy 


In  the  progress  of  the  work  he  could 
not  obtain  enough  masons  to  put  up 
buildings;  so  he  forbade  all  other  con- 
struction of  stone  buildings  throughout 
Russia.  When  the  city  lacked  desirable 
inhabitants  he  required  every  man  in 
Russia  who  employed  as  many  as  five 
hundred  serfs,  or  workmen,  to  build  a 
residence  in  Petrograd  and  to  spend  the 
winter  there.  In  other  words,  his  will 
was  law,  and  his  government  an  absolute 
monarchy.  The  other  Czars  of  Russia 
ruled  in  the  same  way. 


EASTERN   EUROPE 


231 


The  last  Czar,  Nicholas  II,  however, 
was  driven  from  the  throne  in  191 7.  After 
some  attempts  had  been  made  to  form 
a  repubhc,  a  small  group  of  lawless  men 
obtained  power  and  undertook  to  govern 
the  country.  Everywhere  there  has  been 
disorder  and  suffering. 

Another  striking  weakness  is  lack  of 
education.  Four  out  of  every  five  persons 
2.  Lack  of  can  neither  read  nor  wTite. 
education  Q^   ^j^^^    accouut    the    store 

signs  in  many  places  consist  of  pictures 
rather  than  words  (Fig.  236) .  For  instance, 
a  picture  of  a  hat  over  a  door  means  a 
hat  store;  a  picture  of  a  shoe,  a  shoe  store; 
and  a  picture  of  a  sausage,  a  butcher  shop. 
Americans  in  Russia  have  found  that 
many  of  the  cab-drivers  could  not  find 
the  houses  whose  addresses  were  given  to 
them,  because  they  could  not  even  read 
house  numbers.  People  who  are  so  igno- 
rant as  that  are  not  usually  intelligent 
enough  to  handle  machinery,  or  to  do>any 
kind  of  work  well;  and  the}^  are  easily 
misled  by  bad  men.  Any  nation  is 
checked  in  its  progress  in 
every  direction  by  such 
ignorance,  and  lives  and 
property  are  not  safe. 

Yet  Russia  has  been  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  impor- 
Tin.  A  A  tant  countries  of 

Why  regarded 

as  an  impor-  the  world.  This 
tant  country  ig  partly  because 
of  its  great  size  and  popula- 
tion. A  considerable  part  of 
Asia  belongs  to  Russia;  but 
Russia  in  Europe  before  the 
World  War  occupied  more 
than  half  of  all  Europe,  and 
the  whole  empire  included 
about  one  seventh  of   the 


land  surface  of  the  globe.  Trace  the  bound- 
aries of  Russia  in  Europe  today  (Fig.  198). 

The  population  of  European  Russia  be- 
fore the  war  was  about  140,000,000;  and 
that  of  the  whole  empire  about  175,000,- 
000.  How  does  that  compare  with  the 
population  of  the  United  States? 

Its  great  resources  are  another  reason 
for  regarding  it  as  an  important  country. 
More  than  one  third  of  Russia  in  Europe 
is  covered  with  forest.  The  land  is  re- 
markably level;  much  of  the  soil  is  un- 
commonly fertile;  and  the  climate  in 
most  sections  is  favorable  to  farming. 
It  has  vast  quantities  of  coal  and  iron  ore 
and  ranks  next  to  the  United  States  in  the 
production  of  oil.  With  all  these  resources, 
it  is  bound  to  be  one  of  the  very  greatest 
of  nations  as  soon  as  its  government  and 
education  are  properly  improved. 

Four  out  of  every  five  men  are  engaged 
in  farming;  no  other  occupa-    The  principal 
tion  approaches  it  in  impor-    occupation  in 
tance.     Most  of   the   people,    ^"'"'^ 
therefore,  live  in  the  country,  and  there 


©  InUrniitiotial  Film  Service  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  236.  —  A  butter,  cheese,  and  egg  shop  in  Russia 
Note  the  picture  sign  painted  on  the  window. 


232 


EUROPE 


are  few  large  cities.  Although  Russia's 
population  is  much  greater  than  ours,  we 
have  at  least  twice  as  many 
cities  with  100,000  inhabi- 
tants. 
The  people  do  not  live  on 
their  farmland,  however.  Just  as  in 
France  (p.  211),  they  live  in  villages  con- 


1.  Prominence 
of  fanning  and 
and  interesting 
facts  about  it 


Fig.  237.  —  Russian  peasants 

taining  from  200  to  500  persons  and  go 
out  to  the  land  each  day  to  work.  Can 
you  imagine  how  such  a  level  country 
would  look  with  thousands  of  these  vil- 
lages scattered  over  it?  Make  a  drawing 
to  show  how  you  think  the  country  would 
appear  to  a  man  in  an  airplane. 

Northern  Russia  is  too  cold  for  farming, 

and  the  southeastern  section  is  so  dry 

that  it  is  fit  only  for  grazing. 

2.  How  the  farm    rr^-,        i        j       i         i     -.i        r^ 

products  com-  Ihe  land  about  the  Caspian 
pare  with  our  Sea  is  a  real  descrt.  Locate 
the  desert  region  in  Fig.  191. 
The  rest  of  the  country  produces  crops 
similar  to  those  of  our  country.     There 


are  more  acres  in  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and 
barley  than  in  the  United  States;  and  in 
some  years  more  wheat  has  been  raised 
there  than  here.  Russia  raises  great 
quantities  of  potatoes,  hay,  flax,  and 
hemp.  In  the  extreme  southern  part 
the  climate  is  so  mild  that  cotton  and 
tobacco  are  produced.  The  greatest 
difference  in  the  crops  of 
the  two  countries  is  in  the 
corn;  we  raise  far  more  of 
that  grain  than  Russia  does, 
chiefly  because  Russia  has 
not  enough  rain. 

Moscow  is  distinguished 
in  two  ways.  It  is  the  great- 
est manufacturing  center  in 
Russia.    That  country  be- 
fore the  war  did  not  manu- 
facture on  any  such  scale  as 
we   do.    Yet   there  was   a 
considerable  amount  of  it  in 
some  places;  and  in  Mos- 
-^      cow  one  found  many  textile 
mills,  and  factories  for  the 
,,,.,, /,,,/r,,x     manufacture  of   chemicals, 
leather   goods,    machinery, 
and  other  articles.  The  thing  „„ 
for   which    Moscow   is  most  is  the  most  in- 
distinguished,  however,  is  the  t^^esting  city 

.  /  in  Russia 

part  of  the  city  called  the 
Kremlin.  Here  the  Czars  were  formerly 
christened,  married,  crowned,  and  buried. 
Here,  also,  they  lived  and  worshiped;  and 
as  Moscow  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
Russian  Church,  the  oldest  and  finest 
cathedrals  and  monasteries,  as  well  as 
palaces,  were  erected  in  that  quarter. 
There  are  500  churches  in  the  city;  but 
on  account  of  the  Kremlin  in  particular 
Moscow  is  known  as  the  holy  city  of  Rus- 
sia.   The  Russians  call  it  Holy  Mother 


EASTERN  EUROPE 


233 


Moscow.  In  Fig.  198  notice  the  impor- 
tance of  Moscow  as  a  railroad  center. 

The  two  leading  seaports  of  eastern 
Europe  are  Petrograd  and  Odessa.  Lo- 
The  two  lead-  catc  each.  How  far  apart  are 
ing  seaports     thcv?    Russia  is  SO  level  that 

of  Russia  .,11  ,  , 

it  has  been  easy  to  connect 

1.   Their  advan-    .,  -ii     ji  •       •       i     • 

tages  and  disad-  them  With  the  principal  rivers 
coJ^erci""^  by  canals ;  and  one  can  go  from 
within  Russia  gne  of  thcse  ports  to  the  other 
by  several  water  routes. 

There  are  some  disadvantages,  however, 
that  such  transportation  suffers.  Most  of 
the  rivers  of  Russia  rise  near  the  center 
of  the  country  in  the  Valdai  Hills,  which 
are  the  highest  land  in  the  interior  of 
Russia.  Locate  these  hills  and  name 
several  rivers  that  begin  in  that  region. 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  238.  — The  famous  "King  Bell"  in  Moscow 
This  bell,  which  was  made  in  1737,  weighs  200  tons. 


©  A  merican  Red  Cross 

Fig.  239.  —  Cathedral  of  St.  Basilica,  Moscow 
Note  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  Russian  church  steeples. 

The  highest  point  there  is  only  1,150  feet 
above  the  sea,  which  allows  a  fall  of  only 
a  few  inches  per  mile  for  the  rivers.  On 
that  account  they  flow  very  slowly  and 
wind  about  so  much  that  the  distance 
between  points  upon  them  by  water  is 
often  twice  as  great  as  by  land.  Since 
lumber  is  one  of  the  chief  exports,  there 
are  many  timber  rafts  on  the  rivers,  and 
it  takes  so  long  for  these  to  reach  their 
destination  that  families  often  build 
shacks  for  homes  and  even  raise  gardens 
upon  them.  Mention  some  of  the  pleas- 
ures you  see  in  such  a  life.  Aside  from 
the  many  windings  of  the  rivers,  the  Volga, 
which  is  the  largest  of  all,  indeed  the 
largest  river  in  Europe,  loses  much  of  its 
value  because  it  ends  in  a  desert  region. 
Locate  its  mouth  (Fig.  197). 

The  building  of  railroads  in  such  a  flat 
country  is  easy,  and  the  map  shows  that 


234 


EUROPE 


there  are  many.  Yet  their  number  is  small 
compared  with  the  number  in  the  United 
States.  Russia  in  Europe  has  36,000  miles 
of  railway,  while  we  have  266,000.  Can 
you  account  for  the  difference? 

Both  Petrograd  and  Odessa  are  a  long 

way  from  the  ocean.     Trace  the  route 

that    vessels    must    take    to 

vantage  foT  "   reach  the  Atlantic  from  Petro- 

foreigncom-      gradi  from  Odessa.    Which  is 

merce  o  ; 

the  shorter?    Which  port  has 
the  advantage  in  the  winter?    In  case  of 


•  riroot!  mid  Vvfhnrood 

Fig.  240.  —  Wheat  ready  for  shipment,  Odessa 
Notice  the  wooden  yokes  that  are  placed  upon  beasts 
of  burden  in  Russia. 

war  how  many  countries  might  block  the 
way  from  Petrograd  to  the  ocean?  From 
Odessa?  In  spite  of  the  great  area  and 
population  of  Russia,  its  entire  foreign 
commerce  before  the  war  was  only  about 
two  thirds  as  great  as  that  of  New  York 
City  alone.  What  reasons  can  you  give 
for  so  small  an  amount? 

Odessa  is  often  compared  with  Minneap- 
olis, because  it  is  a  great  center  for  wheat. 


How  does  it  compare  in  population?  It 
has  many  flour  mills,  and  is  the  chief 
port  for  shipment  of  wheat  3  ^,,,^,,^^ 
abroad.    It  is  a  modern  city     facts  about 

these  ports 

With   many   fine    streets   and 

parks  and  is  built  around  a  beautiful  bay. 

Petrograd  is  much  more  important  than 
Odessa  as  a  manufacturing  center,  ranking 
next  to  Moscow  in  that  respect.  Compare 
it  with  Chicago  in  population  (pp.  310  and 
311).  It  is  located  in  a  marsh  at  the  point 
where  the  Neva  River  empties  into  the 
Gulf  of  Finland.  Its  climate  is  severe. 
Up  to  the  time  when  Peter  the  Great 
founded  Petrograd,  Russia  had  been  more 
related  to  Asia  than  to  Europe.  Peter 
changed  the  capital  in  order,  as  he  said, 
that  he  might  have  a  window  looking  out 
upon  Europe.  Why,  do  you  suppose,  was 
that  desirable?  Do  you  think  this  loca- 
tion a  wise  one? 

The  city  was  until  recently  the  center 
of  education  and  government.  It  is  a 
city  of  beautiful  streets  and  imposing 
buildings.  The  marsh  has  been  drained 
into  canals,  which  form  some  of  the 
streets;  and  many  bridges  cross  the  canals 
and  connect  the  islands.  Can  you  imagine 
some  of  the  winter  sports  there? 

As  a  result  of  the  World  War,  Russia 
has  lost  very  important  territory.     Fin- 
land  (Fig.    198)   has  become  „     .    , 
independent;  it  is  now  a  re-  of  territory 
pubUc,  having  an  area  about     pj^^^jj 
equal  to  that  of  the  British 
Isles  and  a  population  of  more  than  three 
miUion.    Its  capital,  Helsingfors,  is  right 
at  the  front  entrance  to  Petrograd.    Can 
you   see   any  reason  why  the   Russians 
might  object  to  having  the  capital  of  a 
foreign  country  at  this  point?     Finland 
is  chiefly  a  farming  country.     It  contains 


EASTERN   EUROPE 


235 


many  lakes  (Fig.  197),  with 
patches  of  farmland  scat- 
tered among  woods  and 
marshes. 

Poland,  on  the  west  side 

of  Russia  next  to  Germany 

(Fig.    198),   has 

2.  Poland  \  , 

also  become  an 
independent    republic.     It 
has  a  population  of  about 
30,000,000  and  an  area  of 
more  than  140,000  square 
miles.     Some  of  this  terri- 
tory has  been  won  back 
from  Germany  and  Austria, 
by   w^hom    it   was    seized 
many  years  ago;    but  the 
greater  part,  including  War- 
saw, the  capital,  and  Lodz,  was  restored 
to  it  from  Russia.    Locate  these  cities. 
They  are  great  manufacturing  cities,  noted 
especially  for  textiles  and  iron  goods.  The 
number  of  important  cities,  however,  is 


©  American  Red  Cross 

Fig.  241. — ^  A  Polish  peasant's  home  near  Warsaw 

How  does  this  home  appear  to  compare  in  comfort  and  attractiveness 
with  the  dwellings  occupied  by  the  poor  in  our  own  country? 

not  great,  for  Poland  has  surface  fea- 
tures similar  to  northern  Germany  and 
is  chiefly  a  farming  country.  RecalHng 
what  has  been  said  about  manufacturing 
in  Russia,  what  do  you  suppose  must  be 
the  feeling  of  the  Russians 
about  this  loss? 

Esthonia  and  Latvia  (Fig. 
201)  are  now  recognized  as 
independent  na- 
tions. Lithuania 
and  Ukraine  have  likewise 
declared  their  independ- 
ence. If  they  also  remain 
separate,  Russia  will  lose 
much  of  her  former  prom- 
inence among  the  nations 
of  the  earth. 


3.  Other  new 
countries 


Photo  from  Ewiny  Galloway 

Fig.  242.  —  Interior  of  a  Finnish  peasant's  home 

Finland  is  as  far  north  as  Alaska,  and  the  warmly  built  but  roughly  fur- 
nished cabins  of  the  Fiimish  peasants  resemble  the  cabins  of  the  Alaskan 
miners. 


1.  State  the  character  of 

the  Russian  gov-  Review 

ernment.  2.  Tell  q"es«o»^s 
about  the  lack  of  education. 
3.  Why  has  Russia  been 


236 


EUROPE 


regarded  as  one  of  the  great  nations? 
4.  State  some  facts  about  Russian  farm- 
ing. 5.  Compare  Russian  farm  products 
with  our  own.  6.  Why  is  Moscow  an 
especially  interesting  city?  7.  Name  and 
locate  the  two  leading  seaports  of  Russia. 
8-  What  advantages  have  they  for  com- 
merce within  Russia?  9.  What  disadvan- 
tages do  they  suffer  in  foreign  commerce? 


offered  a  better  location  for  the  new 
capital  of  Peter  the  Great  than  that  of 
the  Baltic  Sea.     2.  There  are      e 

Suggestions 

two   other   prominent   routes      for  extra 
from  Russia  to  the  ocean.  Can      ^^^^ 
you  find  them?    3.  Russia  consumes  one 
fifth  of  a  ton  of  coal  per  person  each  year, 
while  the  United  States  consumes  five  tons " 
per  person.    What  other  differences  be- 


I'liolo  from  Ewhiy  Galloway 


Fig.  243.  —  City  of  Riga,  capital  and  chief  seaport  of  Latvia 


10.  Recall  some  facts  about  each  of  these 
seaports.  11.  What  losses  of  territory  has 
Russia  recently  suffered?  12.  What  can 
you  tell  about  the  surface  features  of 
Finland?  About  those  of  Poland?  13. 
Tell  what  you  can  about  the  occupations 
of  the  Polish  people.  14.  What  other 
countries  have  secured  or  hope  to  secure 
their  independence  from  Russia? 

1.  Here  is  a  question  for  debate:  Re- 
solved, That  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  if 
it  could  have  been  secured,  would  have 


tween  the  two  countries  do  these  facts 
suggest  to  you?  4.  What  countries  and 
bodies  of  water  bound  Russia?  5.  Make 
a  drawing  of  Russia,  putting  in  the 
principal  highlands,  rivers,  and  cities. 
6.  Many  Finnish  people  have  settled  in 
northern  Michigan.  Can  you  suggest 
why  they  have  preferred  to  settle  there 
instead  of  farther  south?  7.  Find  out 
how  Poland  came  to  be  divided  among 
three  of  her  neighbors.  How  does  her 
present  size  compare  with  her  former  size? 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 


237 


IV.    Countries  of  the  Western  Mediterranean 
1.    Spain  and  Portugal 


The  rank  of 
these  coiin- 
tries 

1.  The  advan- 
tages that  their 
location  sug- 
gests 


Spain  and  Portugal  (Fig.  247)  are  lo- 
cated so  much  farther  south  than  other 
well-known  countries  of  Eu- 
rope that  one  would  expect 
them  to  have  a  mild,  pleasant 
climate.  With  ports  on  both 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  one  might 
expect  them  to  do  a  great  deal  of  trading 
with  other  countries.  As  Spain  and 
Portugal  he  between  Africa  and  central 
Europe,  their  railroads  should  offer  one 
of  the  best  means  of  transporting  goods 
between  the  two  continents.  Likewise, 
since  these  countries  are  nearer  the 
United  States  than  any  of  the  other 
countries  of  Europe,  goods  might  be  ex- 
pected to  enter  and  leave  Europe  through 
Spanish  or  Portuguese  ports.  Point  out 
on  Fig.  315  these  advantages  of  location. 
Yet  the  climate  of  most  of  the  penin- 
sula is  not  mild.  Nearly  three  quarters  of 
o  o        -c  «e  the   area   is   a 

2.  Some  reasons 

whytheirrank      mOUUtainOUS 

is  low  . 

plateau  over 
half  a  mile  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Only  a  narrow 
strip  around  the  edge  and 
a  few  river  valleys  are  low 
and  have  a  mild  climate. 
Point  out  some  of  these 
warmer  sections  on  the 
map.  How  does  the  sur- 
face remind  you  of  that  of 
Mexico  (Fig.  58)? 

On  account  of  this  lofty 
plateau,  it  is  difficult  to  get 
goods  from  the  interior  to 


the  coast  for  shipment  abroad.  For  the 
same  reason,  incoming  goods  are  not 
easily  distributed  to  the  central  region. 
Most  of  the  rivers  flowing  from  the 
plateau  to  the  sea  have  many  rapids  and 
falls,  so  that  they  are  of  little  use  for  navi- 
gation. The  most  valuable  is  the  Guadal- 
quivir River.  Trace  its  course.  You 
can  see  that  the  mountainous  plateau 
makes  it  difficult  to  build  railroads  across 
the  peninsula.  The  lack  of  good  harbors 
interferes  still  further  with  transportation. 
Lisbon  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in 
the  world,  and  Oporto  a  fair  harbor. 
Two  good  harbors  in  Spain  are  Cadiz  and 
Barcelona;  but  there  are  few  others. 
Locate  these  four. 

For  these  reasons  goods  cannot  easily 
be  shipped  across  the  peninsula.  It  has 
not  become,  therefore,  an  important  route 
between  Europe  and  Africa,  or  between 
Europe  and  America. 


Fig.  244.  —  A  public  square  in  Lisbon 


©  Ewing  QalUrway 


238 


EUROPE 


Photo  by  Elmeiulorf  ©  Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  245.  —  The  cliffs  and  viaduct  at  Ronda 
Ronda  is  a  short  distance  from  Malaga  and  Gibraltar 

(Fig.  247). 

The  foreign  trade  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
together  is  in  most  years  much  less  than 
one  fifth  that  of  France;  and  their  rank 
is  very  low  in  comparison  with  other 
nations. 

The  average  Spaniard  dislikes  business. 
The  rich  landowners  have  been  content  to 
■nrt-  xxu  allow    ignorant    overseers    to 

What  the  °  , 

peopled©         look  after  their  estates  while 

1.  Their  love  of  they  themselves  spent  their 
atyiife  ^.^^  ^^  ^^^  citics.     Madrid 

owes  its  size  partly  to  this  cause,  since 
there  is  little  manufacturing  there.  ' 

The  narrow  strip  of  land  lying  between 
the  plateau  and  the  Mediterranean  is  very 

2.  Poor  success  productive.  In  some  years 
in  agriculture  three  or  four  crops  are  raised. 
On  account  of  the  lack  of  sufficient  rain 
there,   however,   irrigation  is  necessary. 


Near  Valencia,  where  the  gardens  are 
famous,  some  of  the  irrigation  works  date 
from  the  time  of  the  Moors,  who  were 
driven  out  of  Spain  several  centuries  ago. 
Malaga  is  noted  for  its  grapes.  Have 
you  ever  eaten  any  of  them?  Dates, 
oranges,  lemons,  grapes,  and  raisins  are 
raised  for  export,  and  rice,  sugar  cane, 
onions,  beans,  and  peas  for  home  use. 
The  fertile  Guadalquivir  Valley  is  well 
known  for  its  wines  and  olives. 

On  the  plateau,  however,  the  farming 
is  poor.  Although  over  half  of  the  people 
are  engaged  in  agriculture,  they  export 
little  food.  One  reason  for  this  is  that 
they  get  most  of  their  rain  in  the  winter 
after  the  growing  season.  Another  reason 
is  the  old-fashioned  way  in  which  they 
farm.  For  instance,  they  still  use  wooden 
plows  and  thresh  their  grain  by  having 
horses  tramp  it  out.  Wheat,  rye,  flax, 
and  grapes  for  wine  are  the  principal  crops 
there,  and  some  sheep  and  cattle  are  raised. 

Spain  and  Portugal  are  rich  in  minerals. 
Coal,  lead,  iron,  zinc,  tin,  copper,  and 
quicksilver  are  abundant,  and 

/,  ,  -i.  i"       -1  3.  TheUttle 

there  are  deposits  ot  silver,  use  they  make 
All  the  mountainous  sections  er^'^"^'" 
have  one  or  more  of  these 
minerals.  Yet  the  people  have  shown  so 
little  energy  that  they  have  allowed  for- 
eignei's  to  work  the  mines  and  export 
the  products.  These  minerals  should  be  a 
great  source  of  wealth  in  the  future. 

If  you  were  to  visit  Spain  and  Portugal 
you  would  hardly  find  traveling  as  com- 
fortable as  it  is  in  the  United    Discomforts 

States.     There  are  not  many 
fast  trains  and  the  cars  are  not 
well  heated  in  winter.    When 
the   trains    are    crowded  no  more    pas- 
sengers   are    allowed   to    get    on.     You 


and  pleasures 
of  a  visit  to 
these  coun- 
tries 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 


239 


may  wait  hours  for  your  train  and  then 
find  that  you  cannot  board  it.  The 
hotels  are  even  more  uncomfortable  than 
the  trains.  A  bathroom  with  running 
water  is  rare,  and  even  hot  water  is  hard 
to  obtain. 

Madrid  is  the  railroad  center  of  Spain 
(Fig.  247).  If  you  visited  Madrid  in  the 
spring  you  might  suffer  from  the  cold. 
One  of  their  proverbs  says :  "Don't  take 
off  your  overcoat  till  the  fortieth  day  of 
May."  What  does  that  mean  to  you? 
But  if  you  arrived  in  summer  you  would 
be  sure  to  suffer  from  the  heat. 

As  you  traveled  about  the  country  you 
would  be  surprised  at  the  large  number  of 
beautiful  churches  and  buildings.  The 
art  gallery  at  Madrid  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  the  world.  Some  of  the  most  interesting 
buildings  in  Spain  were  erected  by  the 
Moors.  The  famous  palace  at  Granada, 
called  the  Alhambra,  is  one 
most  often  visited  by  tour- 
ists (Fig.  249). 

One  of  the  best  known 
places  to  visit  in  Spain  is 
Gibraltar.  Many  Ameri- 
cans go  to  Europe  by  way 
of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
(Fig.  315).  Gibraltar  is  now 
owned  by  the  British,  who 
have  made  a  powerful  for- 
tress of  it.  Why  should 
Great  Britain  want  a  strong- 
hold at  this  point? 


pie  show  their  love  of  city  life?  4.  Name 
their  principal  agricultural  products.  5. 
For  what  is  Valencia  famous?  Malaga? 
6.  Why  is  their  farming  so  poor?  7.  What 
minerals  are  found  in  abundance  in  Spain? 
8.  What  use  do  they  make  of  their  min- 
erals? 9.  Tell  of  the  discomforts  and 
pleasures  of  a  visit  to  these  countries.  10. 
What  is  the  Alhambra?  What  is  Gibraltar? 
1.  Compare  the  location  of  Madrid 
with  that  of  Mexico  City.  Which  has 
the  better  climate?  2.  Why  suggestions 
would  you  expect  considerable 
water  power  in  these  countries? 

3.  Who  were  the  Moors?  When  did  they 
live  in  Spain?  From  where  did  they  come? 
What  works  of  the  Moors  can  still  be  seen? 

4.  In  what  ways  is  it  an  advantage,  and 
in  what  ways  a  disadvantage,  that  the 
Pyrenees  Mountains  so  fully  separate 
Spain  and  France?     Note  whether  there 


for  extra 
work 


1.  What  advantages 
does  the  location  of  these 
Review  countries    sug- 

questions  g^gt?      2.     Give 

some  reason  why  their  rank 
is  low.     3.  How  do  the  peo- 


.    I'liishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  246.  —  Carrying  hay  on  pack  mules  near  Seville 
Can  farmers  accomplish  a  great  deal  by  such  methods?    What  public 
improvement  would  make  better  methods  possible? 


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242 


EUROPE 


are  any  railroads  connecting  the  two 
countries.  5.  Compare  Spain  and  France 
in  area  and  population.  Which  seems  to 
have  the  advantage  in  location?     Why? 


Fig.  249. 


l')wlo  by  Elmendorf    ©  Ewing  Oalloway 

-Entrance  to  the  Alhambra 


6.  How  do  the  two  capitals,  Madrid  and 
Lisbon,  compare  with  each  other  and 
with  the  other  cities  in  population  (p. 
312)?  7.  What  reasons  do  you  see  for 
so  large  a  city  in  central  Spain? 

2.    Italy 

Italy  is  an  especially  interesting  country 
to  tourists.  Before  the  war  great  num- 
itaiyas  h^Y^  of  Americans  visited  it 

a  tourist         each   year,   and   many  more 
came   from    other    countries. 
Some  travelers  were  attracted  to  Italy 
by  the  mild  climate  and  beautiful  scenery. 


To  others,  since  Rome  was  once  the  leader 
of  the  world,  the  many  ancient  buildings 
are  the  chief  attraction.  Still  others  go  to 
Italy  to  see  its  paintings  and  statues,  which 
make  Italy  the  art  center  of  the  world. 
Which  of  these  attractions  would  most 
appeal  to  you? 

If  you  ever  visit  Italy,  you  are  likely  to 
sail  from  New  York  to  Naples.     In  Fig. 
315  follow  the  route  from  New 
York  through  the  Azores  and  V'^7''^^^J  *° 

ci        •  p      /~^•^  Naples  and 

the    Strait    of    Gibraltar    to  the  attractions 
Naples.     How  direct  is  this  °*  *^^*  "^^ 
route?    What  does  it  tell  you 
about   the   latitude   of   these 
two  cities?    You  may  wonder 
at  the  climate  in  Naples.     Whatever  the 
season,  the  weather  is  Ukely  to  be  warmer 
than  it  is  in  New  York. 


1.  The  beauty 
of  the  climate 
and  location 


©  Underwood  and  L  nderwood 

Fig.  250.  —  Macaroni  drying  in  the  open  streets  of 

Naples 

The  macaroni  is  often  made  in  dark,  unsanitary  rooms 

and  then  brought  out  to  be  dried  in  the  sun.    The  streets 

are  often  dirty.     How  would  you  like  to  eat  macaroni 

that  has  been  made  in  such  places? 


ITALY 


243 


The  curved  bay  on  which  Naples  is  lo- 
cated presents  a  most  magnificent  sight 
as  the  boat  steams  into  the  harbor.  Its 
sparkling  blue  water  is  crowded  with 
shipping.  On  the  north  shore  the  city 
rises  street  above  street  upon  the  slopes 
of  high  hills.  To  the  east  is 
the  volcano,  Mount  Vesu- 
vius (Fig.  251),  with  the 
crest3  of  the  Apennines  in 
the  distance. 

As  you  take  some  of  the 
delightful  excursions  about 
,  . ,     ^      Naples  vou  find  a 

2.   Interesting  ^ 

sights  about     productive  farm- 
Naples  .  .  , , 

ing  region;  the 
farms,  however,  are  very 
different  from  ours.  In- 
stead of  living  on  their  land, 
the  peasants  crowd  into 
Naples  and  go  out  to  their 
work  each  day.  It  is  partly 
because  of  this  desire  for 
town  life  that  Naples  has 
become  the  largest  city  in 
Italy.  Every  possible  foot 
of  land  is  cultivated  to 
supply  food  for  the  dense  population,  for 
over  half  the  country  is  too  mountainous 
for  farming,  or  is  covered  with  marshes 
that  are  too  unhealthful  for  human  be- 
ings. Notice  how  the  Apennines  extend  the 
whole  length  of  Italy  (Fig.  247),  forming 
its  backbone.  Many  of  the  fields  are 
small  and  irregular.  It  is  a  common 
sight  to  see  hillsides  terraced  in  narrow 
strips  of  wheat,  vineyards,  and  groves  of 
olive,  orange,  and  lemon  trees;  and  even 
a  corner  by  the  roadside  may  be  a  vege- 
table garden. 

Strange  as  it  may  at  first  seem,  the 
great  fertility  of  this  region  is  due  largely 


to  Mount  Vesuvius,  for  the  decay  of  the 
lava  and  ashes  thrown  out  by  that  vol- 
cano has  enriched  the  soil.  You  may  be 
interested  in  climbing  Vesuvius  and  peer- 
ing cautiously  down  into  the  smoking 
crater.    The  city  of  Pompeii,  which  was 


Photo  by  Elmendorf   ©  Ewirtg  Oalloway 

Fig.  251. — ^  Mount  Vesuvius 

Locate  this  famous  volcano  on  Fig.  247.     What  is  its  height?     Notice  the 
smoke  rising  from  the  hollow  top,  or  crater. 


completely  buried  in  a  terrible  eruption 
nearly  2,000  years  ago,  has  been  un- 
covered and  may  also  be  visited.  One 
may  wander  about  its  silent  streets  and 
ruined  homes,  and  in  the  museum  see 
loaves  of  bread  and  other  articles  which 
were  turned  to  stone  centuries  ago. 

Locate  Rome,  the  capital  and  most  im- 
portant city  of  the  peninsula.  It  is  a  city 
of  fine  residences,  public  build- 
ings, art  galleries,  and  notable 
ruins.  The  dome  of  St. 
Peter's,  the  largest  and  most 
famous  church  in  the  world,  towers 
above  everything  else;  and  the  Vatican, 


Why  Rome 
and  Florence 
are  interest- 
ing cities 


244 


EUROPE 


where  the  Pope  resides,  is  the  most  noted 
palace  in  the  world.  In  the  Vatican  are 
many  famous  paintings. 


©  Underwood  and  Underuood 

Fig.  252.  —  Ruins  of  the  Forum  at  Rome 
In  ancient  times  this  open  square  was  used  as  a  common  meeting  place 
where  the   Romans   transacted   their  business  and  held   their   elections. 
Around  it  are  seen  the  ruins  of  many  of  their  chief  public  buildings. 


Modern  Rome  is  built  partly  over  the 
ruins  of  ancient  Rome,  which  was  the 
center  of  the  mighty  Roman 
Empire.  During  the  cen- 
turies which  have  passed  since 
the  fall  of  that  empire,  most  of  its  ruined 
buildings  have  been  gradually  buried  by 


1.  Famous 
buildings  to  be 
seen  in  Rome 


sand  and  rubbish.  Can  you  imagine  some 
of  the  ways  in  which  winds  and  wars 
would  help  to  do  this?  Only  in  recent 
years  has  the  rubbish  been 
dug  away  from  many  of 
these  ruins,  so  that  you  can 
now  see  parts  of  them  as 
they  stood  in  JuHus  Caesar's 
time.  One  of  the  most 
noted  relics  is  the  Colos- 
seum, a  huge,  oval-shaped 
theatre  open  to  the  sky. 
There  fights  to  the  death 
were  held  between  men,  and 
between  men  and  wild 
beasts,  for  the  amusement 
of  the  Romans.  Another 
extensive  ruin  is  the  Forum 
(Fig.  252),  a  great  pubhc 
square,  where  monuments, 
arches,  and  temples  stood. 
Florence  is  a  picturesque 
town  lying  in  the  upper 
valley  of  the 
Arno,  amid  hill- 
sides thickly 
dotted  with  olive  trees. 
The  ancient  palaces,  the 
Duomo,  or  cathedral,  and 
the  more  modern  buildings 
cluster  about  the  banks  of 
the  river,  which  is  spanned 
by  many  quaint  bridges. 
Florence  is  noted  as  a 
storehouse  for  art,  and  its 
galleries  are  among  the  best  in  the  w^orld. 
Even  the  Florentine  manufactures  are 
especially  beautiful.  You  will  see  hats 
and  baskets  of  plaited  straw,  hand  woven 
silks,  and  statues  made  of  flawless  Carrara 
marble  from  the  quarries  near  by  (Fig. 
253). 


2.  Beautiful 
sights  of 
Florence 


ITALY 


245 


you  may  see 
at  Venice 


You  are  likely  to  think  Venice,  at  the 
head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  the  strangest 
strange  things  city  you  have  ever  seen.  The 
train  which  carries  you  there 
passes  from  the  mainland  over 
shallow  lagoons  to  a  city  which  seems  to 
rise  out  of  the  sea,  but  which  is  securely 
built  upon  more  than  100  small  islands 
(Fig.  254) .  You  will  be  met  at  the  station 
by  a  boat  called  a  gondola  and  rowed  to 
the  doorstep  of  your  hotel;  for  canals 
form  the  streets  of  Venice  and  gondolas 
take  the  place  of  automobiles  and  street 
cars.  There  are  many  footpaths  and 
bridges,  however,  so  that  one  may  walk 
throughout  the  city;  but  there  are  no 
wagon  roads  nor  horses. 
You  will  enjoy  riding  down 
the  Grand  Canal  (Fig.  254), 
which  is  bordered  by  palaces 
of  white  marble.  You  will 
see  St.  Mark's  Cathedral, 
and  in  the  great  square  in 
front  of  it  you  may  stop  to 
feed  the  pigeons.  Near  by 
is  the  palace  of  the  Doges, 
where  the  rulers  of  Venice 
lived  long  ago. 

There  are  many  things  to 
buy,  for  the  Venetians  are 

other  attrac-  espcciaUy  noted 
tions  of  north-  for  their  artistic 
ern  Italy  manufactures. 
The  Venetian  glassware  is 
famous.  Very  fine  lace  is 
made  there,  and  pottery 
making  is  another  industry. 
Notice  that  the  principal 
river  of  Italy  is  the  Po. 
Trace  its  course.  As  you 
travel  through  the  Po  Basin 
you  pass  through  the  rich- 


1.  A  journey 
from  Venice  to 
Milan 


est  farmlands  of  Italy.  The  tempera- 
ture is  similar  to  that  about  New  York, 
but  the  rainfall  is  much  less 
in  summer.  You  will  notice 
familiar  crops,  such  as  grapes, 
wheat,  and  corn,  the  richness  of  the 
region  being  due  partly  to  the  irrigation 
systems  which  thread  the  plain  in  all 
directions.  On  irrigated  fields  nine  crops 
of  fodder  are  sometimes  harvested  in  a 
single  season.  The  mulberry  tree  also 
grows  several  crops  of  leaves,  making  the 
production  of  raw  silk  the  chief  industry 
of  the  valley.  How  do  the  level  land  and 
numerous  rivers  make  irrigation  easy? 
Where  the  plain  is  marshy  and  difficult 


©  Underuood  and  U nderwood 

Fig.  253.  —  Hauling  Carrara  marble  slabs  to  a  railway  station  for 

shipment 

The  Carrara  marble  district  lies  about  fifty  miles  southeast  of  Genoa 
Some  of  these  quarries  have  been  worked  for  more  than  2,000  years.  These 
slabs  will  be  used  to  beautify  buildings;  their  value  lies  in  their  pure  white 
color  and  the  absence  of  stains  or  cracks. 


246 


EUROPE 


\\ 


fNl 


to  drain,  you  will  see  rice  being  culti- 
vated. 

Perhaps  you  have  wondered  why  so 
little  thus  far  has  been  said  about  manu- 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  254.  — The  Grand  Canal,  Venice 
Venice  is  built  on  about  120  islands  near  the  mouth  of  the  Po  River. 
Canals,  for  the  most  part,  take  the  place  of  streets.     There  are  175  canals, 
which  are  crossed  by  more  than  375  bridges. 


The  reason  is  that  Italy  lacks 
all  the  minerals,  including 
coal,  which  are  necessary  for 
manufacturing.  In  Milan 
and  its  vicinity,  however, 
manufacturing  is  possible;  for 
there  the  mountain  streams  afford  abun- 


facturing. 
practically 


2.  How  MUan 
differs  from 
other  Italian 
cities 


dant  water  power.  From  what  moun- 
tains do  they  get  their  water?  Impor- 
tant trade  routes  likewise  pass  through 
Milan  (Fig.  247),  and  coal  is  easily 
brought  from  Germany. 
Therefore,  you  will  see 
many  factories,  especially 
for  silk,  woolen,  and  cotton 
goods.  Food  products  are 
also  prepared,  and  machin- 
ery and  cutlery  are  manu- 
factured. 

Milan  has  not  the  num- 
ber of  noted  buildings  that 
many  other  Italian  cities 
have;  but  its  cathedral  is 
particularly  beautiful.  On 
the  walls  of  a  former  mon- 
astery is  the  great  painting 
' ' The  Last  Supper."  Have 
you  seen  a  copy  of  it?  If 
so,  describe  it. 

The  temperature  changes 
greatly  as  you  approach 
Genoa.     You 

3.    A  visit  to  the 
will    see    olive,    most  important 

d   seaport 

lemon  trees  flourishing 
there,  for  the  west  winds 
from  the  sea  moderate  the 
temperature  just  as  they 
do  at  Naples.  The  warm 
days  and  brilliant  sky  and 
sea  make  this  portion  of 
the  coast  one  of  the  fa- 
vorite resorts  of  Europe. 

Genoa  is  connected  by  rail  with  other 
Italian  cities  and  with  the  largest  cities 
of  Europe,  and  its  harbor  is  the  finest  in 
Italy  (Fig.  255).  Therefore,  you  might 
expect  to  see  on  the  wharves  the  principal 
exports  and  imports.    Among  the  largest 


ITALY 


247 


exports  will  be  silk,  wine,  and  olive  oil. 
What  others  might  you  expect?  You  will 
see  raw  cotton  from  the  United  States  and 
coal  from  Great  Britain  being  unloaded. 


1.  Show  the  importance  of  Italy  as  a 
tourist  country.     2.    State 
Review  some       facts 

questions  about  the  voy- 
age to  Naples  and  about 
the  beauty  of  the  climate 
and  loeation  of  that  city. 

3.  What  interesting  sights 
are  found  around  Naples? 

4.  What  famous  buildings 
and  ruins  are  to  be  seen 
in  Rome?  5.  Mention  some 
of  the  attractions  of  Flor- 
ence. 6.  Of  Venice.  7.  De- 
scribe the  journey  across 
the  Po  Basin.  8.  How  does 
Milan  differ  from  other 
Italian  cities?  9.  Explain 
the  importance  of  Genoa. 

1.  Describe  the  shape  of 


Why  can  you  expect  the  Po  and  its  trib- 
utaries to  be  well  supplied  with  water  in 
summer,  even  though  the  rain-     o 

'  _  '^  Suggestions 

fall   is  shght?    4.  How  must     for  extra 
the  Alps  affect  the  tempera-      "^^^^ 
ture  of  Italy?     5.  Write   a   composition 


Ewing  Galloway 

Fig.  255.  —  A  view  of  the  harbor  at  Genoa 
For  more  than  a  thousand  years  this  has  been  an  important  harbor. 


Til  T\  T   1  J         •  c      What  great  explorer  was  bom  here? 

Italy.    Make  a  drawing  oi 


Italy,  locating  cities,  mountains,  rivers, 
and  the  islands  Sicily  and  Sardinia. 
2.  Make    a   list    of    the   leading    cities. 


teUing  why  you  would  like  to  hve  in 
Venice.  6.  Collect  pictures  of  ruins  and 
famous  buildings  in  Italy. 


V.     Countries  of  the  Danube  and  the  Balkans 

(Czecho-Slovakia,  Austria,  Hungary,  Jugo-Slavia,  Albania,  Bulgaria,  Rumania, 

Greece,  Turkey) 


The  position  of  these  countries  is  of 

special  importance.    For  many  centuries 

the  principal  part  of  the  civi- 

Importance  of    „       ,  ^  ^     ^  - 1  ^ 

the  position      hzed    world    lay    south    and 
of  these  southeast  of  the  Black  Sea. 

countnes  i  i  •    i 

Europe  was  then  thinly  set- 
tled by  half -savage  tribes,  and  was  an  in- 
viting region  for  those  inhabitants  of  Asia 


who  wanted  adventure  or  more  space. 
From  time  to  time  great  masses  of  people, 
thousands  and  even  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands together,  pushed  westward  from 
Asia  into  Europe,  and  on  finding  some 
suitable  place,  settled  down.  There  they 
remained  until  crowded  aside  by  new 
and   more  powerful   hordes  from   other 


248 


EUROPE 


parts  of  Asia.  Thus  through  the  long 
centuries  one  wave  of  people  after  an- 
other entered  Europe  and  established  a 
home  there. 

No  matter  where  they  finally  settled, 
most  of  them  came  by  one  route  that 


made  them  a  bridge  between  Asia  and 
the  leading  European  nations. 

Each  new  wave  of  people  crowded  aside 
those  whom  it  found  in  its  way;  or,  after 
much  fighting,  it  mixed  with 
them  as  masters,  or  slaves,  or  the^many^^ 

In  such   languages  and 


1         irregular 
peoples   boundaries 


©  E.  M.  Newman 

Fig.  256.  —  Shoemakers  in  the  street  in  Constantinople 
Much  of  the  business  of  Turkish  cities  is  carried  on  in  the  streets.     In- 
stead of  stores,  many  of  the  merchants  have  open  booths  in  which  they  dis- 
play their  wares. 


lay  across  the  narrow  outlet  of  the  Black 
Sea  into  the  Mediterranean.  The  most 
convenient  point  to  cross  was  where  Con- 
stantinople stands.  From  there  they 
often  moved  westward  along  the  coast 
toward  Greece;  or,  taking  the  easiest 
route  to  the  Danube,  they  followed  its 
valley  into  central  Europe  and  even 
beyond.    Trace  this  route  on  Fig.  248. 

The  latter  was  for  a  long  time  the 
route  for  trade  as  well  as  travel.  Until 
the  discovery  of  America,  the  road  past 
Constantinople  was  one  of  the  principal 
routes  by  which  the  treasures  of  the  In- 
dies were  brought  to  western  Europe. 
Thus   the  location    of    these    countries 


equals, 
ways 

speaking   differ- 
ent  languages  became   es- 
tablished near   together. 

Naturally  the  different 
races  have  often  been  at 
war  with  one  another,  and 
government  has  been  a  diffi- 
cult problem.  One  cause 
of  trouble  has  been  the  de- 
sire of  each  race,  particu- 
larly when  it  formed  a 
majority  of  the  inhabitants 
of  a  considerable  area,  to 
rule  over  the  others  and 
establish  a  government  of 
its  own.  That  desire  never 
could  be  very  fully  realized, 
however,  partly  because 
of  the  number  of  races,  and  partly  be- 
cause some  of  the  more  powerful  Euro- 
pean countries  like  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Russia  have  kept  the  bad  feeling 
ahve.  Discontent  and  strife  have,  there- 
fore, been  constant. 

As  a  result  of  the  World  War,  the 
old  boundaries  of  countries  in  this  re- 
gion have  been  set  aside,  and,  as  far 
as  possible,  those  people  who  are  akin 
in  language  and  race  and  who  form  a 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  over  an  ex- 
tensive section  have  been  allowed  to 
form  an  independent  nation.  How  many 
nations  do  you  find  there  now  (Fig.  248)? 
Some  of  these  are  entirely  new,  and  all  the 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  DANUBE  AND  THE  BALKANS 


249 


old  ones  have  had  theu-  frontiers  greatly 
changed  so  as  to  include  only  the  people 
who  belong  together.  This  is  the  princi- 
pal reason  for  the  very  irregular  bound- 
aries. Trace  some  of  them.  Which 
countries  have  the  sea  or  a  river  for  a  part 
of  their  boundaries? 

Since  these  countries  are  especially  im- 
portant as  a  bridge  between  Asia  and 
northwestern  Europe,  the 

The  principal     ,       , .  -i  i 

railway  leading  railway  may   be  ex- 

through  these   pected  to  run  northwest  from 
Constantinople.        Beginning 

1.  Reasons  for  ^^gj-e,  it  foUoWS  the  COUrSB 
its  location  ' 

that  the  hordes  from  Asia, 
who  were  bound  for  central  Europe,  long 
ago  discovered  to  be  the  most  level  and, 
therefore,  the  easiest.  Trace  this  road 
through  Sofia,  Belgrade,  Budapest,  Vien- 
na, and  Prague  (Fig.  248) .  Notice  that  it 
goes  on  to  Berlin.  What  countries  does  it 
cross?  What  capitals  are  located  upon 
it?  Which  of  the  countries  in  this  region 
seems  least  benefited  by  this  railway? 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  257.  —  A  view  of  the  famous  churchyard  in  Hallstadt 
The  little  town  of  Hallstadt  is  picturesquely  situated  in  the  Tyrolean  Alps 
in  Austria.    It  is  famous  for  its  old  buildings. 


■'J  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  258.  —  Castle  Karlstein,  near  Prague 
This  part  of  Europe  has  many  such  castles,  built  by 
royal  families.     Many  of  them  are  centuries  old. 

Prague,  the  capital  and  leading  city  of 
Czecho-Slovakia,  enjoys  two  advantages 
that  greatly  affect  its  manu-  2.  Leading  cities 
f acturing.    Coal  °^  ^^  ro"** 

and  iron  ore  are    a.  Advantages 

both    found    in  ^f^^P^a^^ 

enjoys 

abundance  in  its 
vicinity.  The  people  of 
Czecho-Slovakia  are  more 
highly  educated  than  any 
other  people  in  this  part 
of  Europe.  With  the  ad- 
vantages of  education  and 
the  abundance  of  raw  ma- 
terials, it  is  not  surprising 
that  manufacturing  is  bet- 
ter developed  here  than 
elsewhere  in  all  these  coun- 
tries. Among  the  manu- 
factures are  metal  goods, 
textiles,  beet  sugar,  and 


250 


EUROPE 


glassware.     Bohemian  glass,  made  from 

the   pecuhar   sand   from  the   mountains 

near  at  hand,  is  famous. 

Until  1919  Vienna  was  the  fourth  city 

in  size  in  Europe.  Can  you  name  the 
three  that  were  larger?  Aus- 
tria, of  which  it  is  the  capital, 
then  included  all  the  territory 
shown   under   that    name   in 

Fig.  248,  most  of  Czecho-Slovakia,  and 


b.  The  past 
and  the  future 
of  Vienna 
and  Budapest 


([)  Eicitiy  Galloway 


Fig.  259.  —  Peasants  plowing  in  Hungary 
Notice  the  crude  plow  and  the  oxen.    Do  you  think  a  fanner  could  culti- 
vate much  land  in  this  way?    Tell  how  the  American  farmer  plows  his  land 

much  other  land  besides.  As  the  capital 
of  so  great  a  country,  it  contained  nu- 
merous royal  palaces,  government  build- 
ings, and  magnificent  parks  and  drives. 
There  was  also  a  large  number  of  fac- 
tories, and  its  manufactures,  hke  those  of 
Paris,  were  distinguished  for  their  pecu- 
liar grace  and  beauty.  Now  it  is  the 
capital  of  a  very  much  smaller  country 
which  has  only  about  one  fourth  its  for- 
mer population.     How  do  you  imagine 


this  will  affect  its  appearance  and  popu- 
lation in  the  future? 

Budapest  is  one  of  the  chief  flour- 
milling  centers  in  the  world.  The  vast 
plains  of  Hungary  surrounding  it  grow 
large  quantities  of  grain.  Like  Minne- 
apolis (p.  95)  and  Odessa  (p.  234),  this 
city  is  a  center  for  milling  and  shipping 
wheat.  Minneapolis  owes  much  to  the 
Hungarian  mills;  for  its  methods  of  pro- 
ducing flour  were  first  ex- 
tensively used  in  Budapest. 
The  city  is  the  capital  of 
Hungary  and  has  a  double 
name,  because  Buda  is  on 
one  side  of  the  Danube 
River  and  Pest  on  the  other, 
the  two  being  connected  by 
several  bridges.  While  it 
has  grown  remarkably  in 
recent  years,  there  is  doubt 
about  its  future  prosperity; 
for  Hungary  has  less  than 
half  its  former  area,  and  its 
capital,  like  Vienna,  may 
suffer  seriously. 

Constantinople  has  long 
ranked  as  one  of  the  fore- 
most  cities    of  c.  Constan- 

the  world.  Lo-  '^^^'^ 
cated  at  the  point  where 
Asia  and  Europe  meet,  it  has  attracted 
people  from  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
As  the  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire  of 
the  East,  it  was  for  many  centuries  the 
leading  center  of  government,  art,  and 
learning.  One  of  its  churches,  completed 
about  550  a.  d.,  still  ranks  among  the 
finest  structures  ever  built. 

In  1453  it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks 
under  Mohammed  II ;  and  from  that  time 
until  the  present  it  has  been  the  capital 


COUNTRIES   OF   THE   DANUBE  AND   THE   BALKANS 


251 


and  largest  city  of  the  Turks.  Under 
Turkish  government  it  soon  lost  its  lead- 
ership in  the  world,  and  became  dis- 
tinguished for  its  backwardness.  For  ex- 
ample, the  city  has  very  few  street  names 
and  house  numbers.  It  is  divided  into 
quarters,  and  mail  reaches  a  person  by 
being  carried  to  the  quarter  in  which  he 
lives,  where  further  progress  depends 
upon  chance  inquiries  by  the  postman. 

The  character  of  the  Turk  greatly  in- 
fluences the  languages  used  and  even  the 
dress  of  the  people.  On  account  of  his 
backwardness  and  cruelty,  the  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  foreigners  from  all  sec- 
tions of  the  earth  who  have  settled  there 
and  now  make  up  about  half  of  the  popu- 
lation have  had  no  desire  to  adopt  that 
country  as  their-  own,  as  foreigners  become 
citizens  of  our  country.  Instead  of  be- 
coming Turks  they  prefer  to  remain 
Greeks,  or  Arabs,  or  Russians;  accord- 
ingly, each  foreigner  continues  to  speak 
his  native  tongue,  and  to  dress  as  he  did 
in  his  own  country.  Thus  there  are  doz- 
ens of  languages  in  use,  and  one  who 
knows  only  two  or  three  is  often  help- 
less. Common  handbills  and  notices  are 
usually  printed  in  four  languages.  One 
can  imagine,  too,  what  a  variety  of  cos- 
tumes may  be  seen  on  the  streets. 

Ever  since  1453  Europeans  have  been 
hoping  to  expel  the  Turks  from  Europe; 
and  it  was  nearly  accompUshed  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  World  War.  Constantinople 
and  a  small  area  outside  the  city  are 
still  occupied  by  the  Turks,  but  the  water 
route  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Mediterranean  is  no  longer  under  their 
control;  the  peace  treaty  which  ended  the 
war  declared  this  water  route  open  to  all 
nations,  to  be  used  by  all  on  equal  terms. 


Two  other  capitals  are  located  on  this 
railroad.  Name  them  (Fig.  248).  What 
tributaries  flow  into  the  Dan-  ^  ^,,„^  .,„  ,^ 
ube  near  Belgrade?  What  Belgrade  and 
advantages  in  location  has 
that  city  over  Sofia?  Do  you  see  any  dis- 
advantages in  the  fact  that  the  capital 
and  largest  city  of  Jugo-Slavia  is  so  near 
a  foreign  country? 

On  entering  Czecho-Slovakia  from  Ger- 
many by  this  route  one  passes  through 
a  gap  in  the  mountains  and 
comes  out  into  a  broad  and 
nearly  level  basin  almost 
surrounded  by  mountains, 
is  near  its  center,  and  in  all 


e.  Country 
scenes  along 
this  railway 

Prague 
directions 


Keystone  View  Co. ,  Inc. 


Fig.  260. — A  public  letter-writer,  Constantinople 

In  Turkey  and  many  other  countries  in  Asia,  and  even 
in  some  parts  of  Europe,  every  town  and  city  has  its  pub- 
lic letter-writers.  Why  do  the  people  not  write  th.eir  own 
letters? 


252 


EUROPE 


from  it  there  is  highly  cultivated  land. 
In  the  growing  season  one  sees  fields  of 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  potatoes,  sugar 
beets,  and  hops;  also  many  cattle  and 
sheep.  The  scenes  are  similar  to  those  in 
our  North  Central  States,  although  the 


■     ©  Eu'in.g  Gallotrai/ 

Fig.  261.  —  Peasant  women  of  Jugo-SIavia  spinning 
Machinery  is  not  used  in  these  old  European  countries 
to  the  extent  to  which  it  is  used  in  America.  The  women 
still  do  much  spinning  and  weaving  and  the  ways  of  liv- 
ing are  much  the  same  as  they  were  in  our  country  150 
years  ago. 

surface  is  rougher.  On  the  mountains 
and  in  the  wilder  sections  unsuited  for 
farming  there  are  extensive  forests. 

After  entering  Hungary  from  Vienna 
one  hardly  cares  to  look  out  of  the  car 
window  much  of  the  time,  because  the 
view  for  a  distance  of  more  than  200 
miles  varies  hardly  at  all.  This  region 
resembles  our  western  plains,  having  long 
stretches  that  are  as  level  as  a  floor,  no 
trees  except  in  villages  and  along  the 


streams,  and  little  to  interest  one  except 
prosperous  farms.  This  is  one  of  the  fin- 
est agricultural  sections  in  Europe,  and 
is  noted  for  its  wheat,  corn,  and  live 
stock.  In  some  of  the  more  hilly  portions 
grapes  are  extensively  grown,  and  other 
fruits,  such  as  plums,  apples,  pears,  and 
cherries  are  common.  How  fully  does 
this  picture  recall  Iowa  and  the  Dakotas 
(p.  96)? 

On  leaving  Belgrade,  the  capital  of 
Jugo-Slavia,  one  enters  mountainous 
country  again.  At  Sofia,  in  Bulgaria,  the 
Balkan  Mountains,  after  which  the  Bal- 
kan Peninsula  is  named,  are  crossed. 
On  the  south  side  of  these  mountains 
the  climate  is  quite  different  from  that  on 
the  north  side.  The  countries  so  far 
crossed  have  hot  summers  and  cold  win- 
ters, like  our  northern  states;  in  southern 
Bulgaria,  however,  the  Balkans  shut  out 
the  cold  north  winds  and  cause  a  very  mild 
climate.  On  that  account  the  crops  vary 
greatly  from  those  farther  north.  For 
example,  roses  are  particularly  common. 
On  a  spring  day,  as  soon  as  the  train 
enters  the  plain  from  the  north,  the  fra- 
grance of  roses  greets  the  traveler,  and 
he  sees  hundreds  of  acres  of  rose-bushes 
about  him.  They  are  raised  for  their 
petals,  from  which  perfume  is  made. 

A  journey  over  this  railroad  gives  a 
fair  idea  of  the  agricultural  products  of 
these  countries.     The  differ- 
ent  climate  elsewhere,   how-   fer^t  climate 
ever,  permits  different  crops,    elsewhere 
The  western  section  that  bor-    ent  crops 
ders  the  Adriatic  Sea  has  a 
mild  climate  and  a  heavy  rainfall.     In 
some  places  as  many  as  200  inches  of 
rain    fall    in    one    year.      What    is    the 
amount  where  you  Uve?    There  the  olive, 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  DANUBE  AND  THE  BALKANS 


253 


mulberry,  and  grape  flourish.  Toward 
the  east  the  rainfall  decreases,  so  that 
the  eastern  parts  of  Bulgaria  and  Ruma- 
nia are  too  dry  for  farming  and  are  given 
up  to  grazing. 

Greece  lies  too  far  south  to  be  in  the 
path  of  the  rain-bringing  winds,  and  what 
rain  it  receives  comes  mainly  during  the 
winter.  The  climate  is  mild,  however, 
and,  with  the  aid  of  irrigation,  figs,  grapes, 
olives,  and  tobacco  are  grown. 

Only  two  of  these  countries,  Hungary 

and    Rumania,    have    extensive    plains. 

The  plains  are  noted  for  their 

^"aSSXa   wheat  and  corn.     Most  of  the 

compared  with  surfacc    elsewhere    is    moun- 

other  occupa-     ,     .  i  •       i  x 

tions  tainous,  and  agriculture  is 

possible  only  in  the  narrow 
valleys.  Yet,  in  spite  of  these  disad- 
vantages, it  is  the  principal  occupation 
throughout  this  region. 

Which  of  these  countries  border  the 
Mediterranean?  Name  some  of  their 
seaports.  Which  depend 
most  upon  the  Danube  for  an 
outlet  by  water  to  the  sea? 
This  river  is 
connected  by  canal  in  Ger- 
many with  the  Rhine  (Fig.. 
201),  so  that  goods  bound 
for  Enlgand  can  go  west,  as 
well  as  east  by  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Mediterranean. 
Trace  each  route  to  London 
from  Budapest.  Every  one 
of  these  countries  needs  an 
outlet  to  the  sea  by  water, 
particularly  for  such  heavy 
and  bulky  freight  as  timber, 
oils,  and  grain.  Transpor- 
tation of  such  things  by  rail 
is  too  expensive. 


How  the  At- 
lantic is 
reached  by 
water 


The  principal  Mediterranean  port  for 
these  countries  is  Saloniki.  In  ancient 
times  there  was  an  easy  road  ^^  saioniki 
from  that  point  northward  is  the  leading 
through  river  valleys  to  Nish  '°^'*"*^ 
in  eastern  Jugo-Slavia.  A  railway  now 
follows  that  ancient  route,  connecting 
at  Nish  with  the  Berhn  to  Constan- 
tinople railroad.  This  is,  therefore,  the 
chief  rail  route  from  these  countries  to 
the  Mediterranean;  and  since  the  har- 
bor at  Saloniki  is  especially  good,  that 
city  is  next  to  Constantinople  in  size  and 
importance.  Athens  is  nearly  as  large; 
but  it  lacks  direct  rail  connections  with 
other  countries. 

Athens  is  the  capital  of  Greece,  located 
six  miles  inland  from  its  port,  called 
Piraeus.  In  ancient  times,  xheimpor- 
before  Rome  reached  its  full-  tanceof 
est  grandeur  and  before  Con- 
stantinople was  heard  of,  this  was  the 
most  important  city  in  the  world.  The 
most  civilized  people  were  then  collected 
about  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  and 
Athens  was  their  leading  center. 


lone  View  Co.,  Inc. 


Fig.  262.  —  Old  citadel  at  Saloniki 


254 


EUROPE 


It  led  the  world  in  architecture,  sculpture, 
poetry,  and  learning,  and  in  many  respects 
its  works  along  these  lines  have  never 
been  surpassed.  Some  of  the  most  highly 
prized  treasures  in  the  great  museums  of 
Paris  and  other  European  cities  are  frag- 
ments of  sculpture  that  have  come  from 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  263.  —  The  ruins  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens 
Long  before  the  time  of  Christ,  Greece  was  the  most  civilized  country  of 
the  world,  with  hundreds  of  ships  on  the  Mediterranean,  many  cities  and 
some  of  the  most  beautiful  buildings  ever  erected.  The  ruins  of  one  of  the 
most  famous  temples,  the  Parthenon,  are  shown  in  this  picture.  The  Parthenon 
stands  on  the  Acropolis,  or  citadel,  of  Athens. 

Athens.  Along  the  sides  of  some  of  its 
streets  and  on  the  fiat-topped  hill  at  the 
edge  of  the  city  called  the  Acropolis,  are 
hundreds  of  statues,  monuments,  and 
ruins  of  buildings  which  are  still  very 
beautiful.  While  Athens  is  now  a  thriving 
city,  these  reminders  of  the  distant  past 
are  the  chief  attraction  to  many  of  its 
visitors.  How  was  the  location  of  the  city 
favorable  to  leadership  in  ancient  times? 


1.  Explain  the  importance  of  the  posi- 
tion of  these  countries.  2.  Give  reasons 
Review  for  their  many  languages  and 

questions         irregular  boundaries.    3.  What 
course  does  their  principal  railway  take, 


and  why  does  it  follow  that  route?  4. 
State  some  of  the  advantages  that  Prague 
enjoys.  5.  What  can  you  tell  about  the 
past  and  future  of  Vienna?     Budapest? 

6.  Show  how  important  Constantinople 
has  been.  7.  What  has  been  the  influence 
of  the  Turks  upon  it?     8.  Describe  the 

country  scenes  along  the 
chief  railway  in  this  region. 
9.  How  do  the  climate  and 
farm  products  differ  along 
the  western  coast?  10. 
How  prominent  is  agricul- 
ture in  these  countries 
compared  with  other  oc- 
cupations? 11.  In  what 
ways  is  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
reached  by  water  from 
these  countries?  12.  Why 
is  Saloniki  the  leading  coast 
city?  13.  Show  the  impor- 
tance of  Athens. 

1.  Make  a  drawing  of  the 
Danube  River  and  locate 
the    principal      suggestions 

cities    upon    it.        for  extra 

2.  Add  to  this  drawing  a  line 
to  represent  the  Berlin  to  Constantinople 
railway;  also  the  road  to  Saloniki.  3. 
Describe  some  of  the  costumes  you  would 
expect  to  see  on  the  streets  of  Constan- 
tinople; or  make  a  drawing  or  painting 
to  show  them.  4.  A  surprising  number 
of  great  cities  are  on  very  nearly  the 
same  parallel  of  latitude  as  Constanti- 
nople. Find  several  of  them  (Fig.  315), 
and  explain  why  there  are  so  many.  5. 
What  reasons  can  you  give  why  Bucha- 
rest and  Sofia  are  not  located  on  the 
Danube?  6.  Read  the  story  of  the  Greek 
boy  Yanni,  in  Child  Life  in  Other  Lands. 

7.  Tell  what  a  tourist  in  Greece  should  see. 


MAP  STUDIES 


255 


1.  How  does  the  coast  line  of  Europe  compare 
with  that  of  South  America?  2.  In  what  gen- 
eral direction  do  the  greatest  high- 
Map  lands  of  Europe  extend?  3.  Name 
questions  ^j^  ^j^  highlands  that  run  in  a 
on  Europe  ,.         . 

different  direction.     4.  Name  the 

countries  of  Europe  that  consist  chiefly  of  high- 
lands. 5.  Of  lowlands.  6.  Name  the  countries 
that  have  no  seacoast.  7.  Name  the  countries 
that  have  areas  below  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
8.  What  country  has  the  largest  number  of  lakes? 
9.  Would  you  expect  to  be  able  to  see  across 
the  Strait  of  Dover  on  a  clear  day?  10.  From 
Ireland  to  Scotland?  11,  Most  of  the  great 
cities  of  Europe  are  between  the  forty-seventh 
and  the  sixtieth  parallels  of  latitude.  Where 
does  the  same  belt  cross  North  America?  12.  Can- 
als are  shown  chiefly  in  the  green  areas  of  Fig.  201. 
Why?  13.  Locate  the  capitals  and  largest  cities 
of  the  British  Isles;  France;  Germany;  Poland. 
14.  Locate  the  Rhine  River;  the  Danube;  the 
Thames;  the  Seine;  the  Vistula. 


15.  Would  you  expect  to  be  able  to  see  across 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar?  16.  The  Strait  of  Mes- 
sina? 17.  From  Corsica  to  Sardinia?  18.  Lo- 
cate Madrid;  Lisbon;  Naples;  Rome;  Milan; 
Venice;  Genoa.  19.  Which  of  the  cities  just 
named  are  important  railroad  centers?  20.  Which 
one  of  them  is  situated  on  a  plateau?  21.  Are 
most  of  the  great  cities  which  you  have  studied  so 
far  highland"  or  lowland  cities?  22.  Does  the 
nearness  of  most  cities  to  great  waterways  help 
you  to  answer  the  last  question?  23.  Locate 
Mt.  Vesuvius;  Mt.  Etna.  24.  To  what  country 
does  most  of  Morocco  belong?  25.  Algeria? 
26.  Tunis?  27.  Between  what  countries  of 
Europe  are  there  high  mountain  barriers? 

28.  What  boundaries  of  the  countries  of 
southeastern  Europe  appear  to  you  to  be  natural? 
29.  Which  appear  to  be  artificial?  30.  What 
country  of  southeastern  Europe  contains  many 
islands  that  served  the  ancient  mariners  as  step- 
ping stones  to  Asia?  31.  Locate  Vienna;  Buda- 
pest; Constantinople;  Odessa;  Saloniki;  Athens. 


Fie.  264 


PART  V.    ASIA 


I.     General  Facts 


Since  Asia  is  on  the  opposite  side  of 

the  northern  hemisphere  from  the  United 

States,  it  can  be  reached  by 

routes'from      traveUng  either  east  or  west. 

the  United       From  San  Francisco  or  Seattle 

States  to  Asia  ,         rt      -n 

one  can  cross  the  racinc 
Ocean  to  Yokohama  in  Japan  and  then 
proceed  farther  to  Shanghai  or  Hongkong 
on  the  coast  of  China.  This  Pacific  route 
is  the  easier. 

Or  one  can  cross  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
from  New  York  to  Europe,  and  then 
proceed  by  rail  across  Europe  either  to 
Moscow  in  Russia  and  on  into  Asia,  or 
to  Constantinople.  A  third  route  leads 
from  New  York  to  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar; 
then  through  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
either  to  Smyrna  in  Asia  Minor  or  to  Con- 
stantinople; or  through  the  Suez  Canal 
around  Arabia  to  India.  Trace  these 
routes  in  Fig.  315.  Also  foUow  them  on 
a  gk)be.  Which  one  do  you  think  would 
be  the  most  interesting,  and  why? 

Asia  is  larger  than  any  other  continent. 

Indeed,  it  is  greater  than  North  and  South 

America  together,  or  Europe 

How  Asia        and  Africa  together.     It  has 

compares  with  •    i     i  •<        ,  i  ii 

the  other  con-  more  mhabitants,  also,  than 
tinents  in  area  ^j^y  other  Continent.     China 

and  popma-  "^  i  .    i 

tion  alone  has  about  two  thirds  as 

many  people  as  all  Europe, 
and  India  has  more  than  any  other 
country  in  the  world  except  China.  Find 
these  two  countries  in  Fig.  268.    More 


than  one  half  of  all  the  people  on  the 
earth  live  in  Asia. 

While  it  is  easy  to  reach  Asia,  it  is  near- 
ly impossible  to  cross  it  in  most  sections. 
Europe  and  Asia  form  only 

one    body    of    land    (p.    195);    Some  reasons 
-  -It  P    why  there  is 

therefore   the   railroads   of   only  one  rail- 
Europe     might     be     expected    road  crossing 
.  .  Asia  east  and 

to  extend  into  Asia,  all  the  west 
way  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
Since  Asia  is  so  large  and  contains  so 
great  a  population,  many  such  trans- 
continental roads  might  be  expected. 
Yet  there  is  only  one  such  road,  and  much 
even  of  it  lies  farther  north  than  the  most 
northern  railway  across  Canada  (Fig. 
59).  Why  are  there  not  several  trans- 
continental lines  in  the  southern  half  of 
the  continent,  just  as  there  are  several 
crossing  the  United  States?  Why  is  the 
only  one  located  so  far  north? 

The  climate  and  surf aee  features  largely 
answer  these  questions.  Western  Asia 
south  of  the  fiftieth  parallel  of  ^  The  check  to 
latitude  is  a  vast  arid 
desert  land  (Fig.  265), 
Sea  is  in  the  midst  of  a  region  that  re- 
ceives only  a  few  inches  of  rain  per  year; 
and,  although  great  rivers  from  Russia 
empty  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  dry 
climate  causes  its  waters  to  evaporate  so 
fast  that  it  has  no  outlet.  Its  waters, 
therefore,  are  salty  like  those  of  Great  Salt 
Lake. 


Qj*     railroads  in 
western  Asia 

Aral 


257 


258 


ASIA 


Most  of  the  territory  extending  from 
Aral  Sea  all  the  way  to  Africa  is  arid. 
Name  the  countries  included  in  this  region. 
Nearly  all  of  Arabia,  for  example,  which  is 
a  peninsula  about  as  large  as  all  our  states 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  is  a  desert. 


Wua.Eii(.Cl>.,N.V, 


Fig.  265.  — 'Annual  rainfall  in  Asia 


In  an  east  and  west  direction  the  dry  area 
of  western  Asia  varies  from  2,000  to  nearly 
4,000  miles  in  length.  Can  you  suggest 
some  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
building  railroads  across  such  a  region? 

Farther  east  there  is  another  barrier 
fully  as  great.  That  is  the  mountainous 
2.  The  check  to  ^^^  platcau  regiou  in  central 
Asia.  Among  the  mountains 
are  the  Himalayas,  just  north 
of  India,  the  loftiest  mountain  range  in 


railroads  in 
central  Asia 


the  world.  Mt.  Everest,  the  highest 
peak,  rises  over  29,000  feet,  or  five  and 
one  half  miles,  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Locate  this  mountain  in  Fig.  267.  Point 
out  other  ranges  farther  west  and  north. 
There  are  great  stretches  of  level  land 
among  these  mountains, 
but  they  are  plateaus  rather 
than  low  plains.  One  great 
highland  is  the  plateau  of 
Tibet,  which  is  from  two  to 
three  miles  above  sea  level. 
That  is  higher  than  most  of 
the  mountain  peaks  in 
North  America.  This  high- 
land, consisting  of  moun- 
tains and  plateaus,  is  even 
more  extensive  than  the 
arid  region  in  the  west. 
Fig.  264  shows  how  high 
above  sea  level  a  train 
would  have  to  climb  in 
crossing  central  Asia.  What 
difficulties  do  you  see  in 
building  railroads  there? 

Neither  the  arid  nor  the 
mountainous  section  can 
support  man}^  inhabitants, 
because  the  one  is  too  dry 
for  agriculture  without  ir- 
rigation and  the  other  is 
too  mountainous  and  cold.  A  trans- 
continental railway,  therefore,  starting 
at  the  European  boundary  would  have 
to  run  for  thousands  of  miles  through 
country  that  is  either  arid  or  moun- 
tainous and  cold,  and  everywhere  sparse- 
ly settled,  before  reaching  the  densely 
populated  part  of  China.  This  makes 
railroad  building  almost  impossible. 

The  one  Une  across  the  continent  is 
called  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway.     It 


SOUTHWESTERN  ASIA 


259 


runs  from  Petrograd  through  Moscow  in 
Russia  to  \ladivostok  on  the  Pacific 
,  xiTu  .u         coast.    Follow  its  route  in  Fig. 

3.  Why  the  one  ^ 

line  is  so  far  268,  and  noto  how  near  one 
can  come  to  Peking,  the  cap- 
ital of  China,  by  this  line.  There  is 
more  rain  along  its  western  course  than 
in  the  country  about  Aral  Sea;  and  the 
mountains  in  the  east  are  much  less  diffi- 
cult to  cross  than  those  farther  south. 

Throughout  the  whole  distance,  how- 
ever, the  population  is  scattered,  and  it 
is  doubtful  if  the  road  would  ever  have 
been  built  had  not  Russia  felt  the  neces- 
sity of  an  outlet  to  the  sea  in  this  direc- 
tion. Recall  some  of  the  difficulties  Rus- 
sia has  had  in  reaching  the  sea  either  from 
Petrograd  or  from  Odessa  (p.  233). 

This  part  of  Asia,  called  Siberia,  has 
long  belonged  to  Russia,  and  it  was  that 
country  that  built  this  railw^ay.  What 
great  disadvantages  do  you  see  in  its  use 
as  an  outlet  from  Europe  to  the  ocean? 


1.  Describe  the  route  you  would  take 
from  your  home  to  Peking,  China,  and 
Review  tell  why  you  would   choose 

questions  [^  2.  Compare  Asia  with 
North  America  in  area.  3.  Tell  what 
you  know  of  the  population  of  China; 
of  India;  of  Asia.  4.  Why  is  it  difficult 
to  make  a  trip  across  the  continent  of 
Asia?    Why  are  there  so  few  railroads 


in  the  southern  part  of  Asia?     5.  Locate 
the  Trans-Siberian  Railway. 

1.  Find  the  time  of  day  in  Shanghai 
when  it  is  noon  at  your  home.  2.  What 
is    the    distance    from    your      c 

*^  Suggestions 

home  to  Vladivostok?  3.  On  for  extra 
a  train  traveling  thirty  miles  ""^^ 
an  hour,  how  long  would  it  take  to  make 
a  journey  from  Petrograd  to  Vladivos- 
tok? 4.  How  would  you  prove  that  Asia 
has  greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
than  any  other  continent? 


'    Brawn  Bros. 

Fig.  266.  —The  Buddhist  temple  in  Lassa,  Tibet 
The  name  of  the  god  worshiped  by  the  people  of  this 

country  is  Buddha,  and  their  religion  is  called  Buddhism. 

Lassa  is  a  sacred  city  of  the  Buddhists.     Locate  it  on 

Fig.  277. 


II.     Southwestern  Asia 


The  part  of  southwestern  Asia  that  is 
of  most  interest  to  us  is  a  very  small  sec- 
The  most  in-  tion,  Called  Palestine,  near 
onouJhwes't-  the  eastern  end  of  the  Medi- 
ern  Asia  terrancan  Sea.     Long  before 

the  time  of  Christ  the  Hebrews  escaped 


from  Egypt  and  came  to  this  little 
country,  which  was  their  '^  Promised 
Land."  They  must  have  found  it  very 
inviting,  since  they  described  it  as  ^'flow- 
ing with  milk  and  honey."  Here  they 
developed  a  nation  with  Jerusalem  as  its 


Fig.  267 


xv^ao" 


Fig.  268 


262 


ASIA 


capital;  it  reached  its  greatest  prosperity 
under  King  Solomon.  Can  you  tell  some 
of  the  events  that  happened  here,  as 
described  in  the  Old  Testament?  This 
is  the  scene  also  of  events  in  the  New 
Testament;  for  this  is  where  Christ  lived 


in  Fig.  277.  Some  of  the  best  known 
among  the  Turkish  rugs  are  made  about 
Smyrna  and  are  called  Smyrna  rugs. 

Possibly  you  have  seen  advertisements 
of  Turkish  tobacco.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  important  products  of  Turkey. 
Other  things  that  we  re- 
ceive from  southwestern 
Asia  are  dates,  figs,  and 
olives.  Still  another  is  an 
especially  fine  kind  of  coffee. 
It  comes  from  Mocha,  and 
is  called  Mocha  coffee. 
Find  this  place  on  Fig.  277. 
Cotton,  rice,  grain,  and 
garden  vegetables  are  also 
raised. 

Though  these  agricultur- 
al products  are  valuable, 
southwestern 

Why  the  prod- 


ucts are  not 


Asia  is  not  able 

to   raise   enough    moreimpor- 

of  them  to  make 


1.  How  the  sur- 
face and  climate 
check  produc- 
tion 


/  ati  /  I  iiiKrwood 


Fig.  269.  —  A  village  school  near  Jerusalem 
Tell  all  the  ways  you  can  in  which  this  school  is  different  from  yours 

and  taught.    On  that  account  it  is  called 

the  Holy  Land. 

From   southwestern   Asia   we   import 

many  beautiful   and  interesting  manu- 

The  principal  factured  articles.  In  Persia 
and  Turkey  thousands  of 
beautifully  colored  rugs,  car- 
pets,  and  shawls  are  woven 

every  year.     Locate  those  two  countries 


products  that 
we  obtain 
from  south- 
western Asia 


the    country    a 

prosperous  one. 

One  reason  is 

that  much  of  the  surface  of 

the   land   is   mountainous. 

As    shown    by    Fig.    267, 

which  sections  are  they?  In 

addition,  as  has  been  stated 

(p.  258),  the  rainfall  is  only 

a  few  inches  per  year  over 

almost  all  of  this  vast  area.     And  water 

for  irrigation  can  be  provided  for  only  a 

small  part  of  the  land. 

The  character  of  the  people  also  hin- 
ders production.  Although  the  Turks 
now  control  only  a  small  part  of  this  re- 
gion, most  of  it  has  been  for  a  long  time 
under  Turkish  rule,  and  the  Turks  have 
always  opposed  progress.    You  have  seen 


SOUTHWESTERN  ASIA 


263 


to  what  extent  they  have  done  this  in 
their    capital,   Constantinople   (p.  .251). 

They  have  followed  a  similar 
chara°Ter  o*f  the  course  clsewherc.  One  of  their 
ch^Sr^        worst   customs   concerns  the 

collection  of  taxes.  Instead  of 
fixing  a  definite  rate  of  taxes  and  paying 
men  a  salary  for  collecting  them,  it  has 
been  their  habit  to  agree  with  some  man 
to  accept  a  certain  amount  from  each  dis- 
trict and  to  allow  each  collector  to  get  his 
pay  by  collecting  as  much  more  as  he 
can.  Under  such  an  arrangement  few 
persons  can  save  anything  beyond  the 
bare  necessities  of  life,  and  modern  im- 
provements cannot  be  expected. 

There  is  a  prospect  of  an  advance  in 
some  parts  of  this  territory,  for  the  Turks 
The  prospect  Were  defeated  in  the  World 
of  new  life  in  War  and  lost  portions  of  their 
IS  region  empire.  The  British  have 
taken  over  the  section  called  Mesopota- 
mia, through  which  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  rivers  flow  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 
They  have  also  taken  control  of  Palestine, 
which  had  been  under  Turkish  rule,  while 
the  French  govern  the  rest  of  Syria.  These 
two  European  nations  will,  no  doubt, 
bring  about  many  improvements.  The 
Greeks  also  have  a  small  area  across  the 
Aegean  sea  from  their  European  posses- 
sions. It  includes  Smyrna,  an  old  Greek 
city.  The  Aegean  coast  and  the  islands 
near  it  were  settled  by  Greeks  about 
3,000  years  ago,  but  were  under  Turkish 
rule  for  many  centuries. 


1.  What  is  the  most  interesting  part 
of  Asia  to  us  and  why?  2.  What  name 
is  given  to  the  country  surrounding 
Jerusalem?  3.  What  manufactured  prod- 
ucts do  we  receive   from   southwestern 


Asia?  What  natural  products?  4.  Give 
two  reasons  why  the  products  of  this 
region  are  few  in  number  and  Review 
small  in  quantity.  5.  Tell  how  questions 
the  Turks  collected  taxes  in  the  countries 
under  their  rule.  6.  What  effect  has  the 
World  War  had  on  Palestine? 

1.  The  Jews  who  escaped  from  Egypt 
into  Palestine  called  it  the  Promised 
Land  and  described  it  as  suggestions 
"flowing  with  milk  and  honey."  for  extra 
Does  that  country  deserve 
this  description  now?  If  not,  what  has 
brought  about  the  change?  2.  Make 
a  list  of  the  places  you  would  want  to 
see  if  you  made  a  trip  to  the  Holy  Land. 

3.  From   what   do   the   Persians   make 
their  fine  rugs  and  how  are  they  woven? 

4.  Find   out   something   about   the  life 
of  olive  trees. 


©  Undervoorl  ami  U luhruood 

Fig.  270.  —  A  sword-maker  at  Damascus 
These  beautiful  pieces  of  steel  are  made  entirely  by 
hand.    The  swords  of  Damascus  have  long  been  famous 
for  their  beautiful  carving  and  keenness  of  edge. 


264 


ASIA 


III.     Siberia  and  Central  Asia 


The  traveler  from  Petrograd  to  Vladi- 
vostok sets  out  on  a  journey  of  nearly 
5,500  miles,  and  even  after 
crossing  the  Ural  Mountains 
into  Asia  he  still  has  4,500 
miles  to  go.  Recall  the  dis- 
tance from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco.  At  first  he  passes  through 
level  country  where  farming  is  well  de- 

r 


What  the 
traveler  sees 
along  the 
Trans-Sibe- 
rian railway 


2.  The  goods 
that  one  sees 
along  the  road 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  271.  —Fishing  in  the  3ea  of  GaUlee 
Both  in  ancient  and  in  modem  times  this  fresh-water  sea,  that  pours  its 
waters  through  the  River  Jordan  into  the  Dead  Sea,  has  supported  many 
fishermen. 

veloped.  The  farm  products  to  be  seen 
are .  the  ordinary  grains,  particularly 
wheat;  potatoes;  onions  and 
other  vegetables;  and  live 
stock.  How  do  these  products 
compare  with  those  in  western 
Canada?  While  the  population  is  thin, 
there  are  some  large  towns.  Name  several 


1.  The  differ- 
ence between 
the  western  and 
the  eastern  half 
of  the  joiimey 


of  them.  The  most  important  is  Tomsk. 
Since  the  road  was  built  only  only  a  few 
years  ago,  perhaps  you  can  suggest  why 
some  of  the  towns  are  many  miles  from 
any  railway  station. 

After  one  crosses  the  Yenesei  River, 
near  the  middle  of  Siberia,  the  scenery 
changes  greatly.  One  enters  a  region  of 
low  mountains,  which  continue  for  many 
hundred  miles.  Farms  al- 
most disappear,  there  are 
great  forests,  and  mining  is 
an  important  industry. 

Naturally  the  principal 
farm  products  form  a  large 
part  of  the 
freight  on  this 
road.  The  most 
important  are  wheat,  cattle 
or  meat,  and  butter  and 
eggs. 

Minerals,  also,  are  prom- 
inent.     Still    other    kinds 
of  freight  are  brought  long 
distances    to    the    railway 
from  both   the   south  and 
north.     Many  caravans 
bring  goods  from  the  south ; 
and  the  vast  forests  on  the 
north,    extending    from 
Europe  to  the  Pacific,  sup- 
ply great  quantities  of  furs. 
The  more  common  animals  are  the  fox, 
sable,  otter,  ermine,  wolf,  bear,  and  gray 
squirrel.    In  this  cold  climate  their  fur 
grows  especially  thick  and  soft.     Siberia 
now  supplies  more  furs  than  any  other 
country,  not  excepting  Canada. 

In  1915  goods  worth  $45,000,000  were 
shipped  from  the  United  States  into  Si- 


SIBERIA  AND  CENTRAL  ASIA 


265 


Why  impor- 
tant towns 
have  devel- 
oped in  the 
arid  region 
east  of  the 
Caspian  Sea 


beria  by  way  of  Vladivostok.  Can  you 
suggest  what  some  of  the  articles  must 
have  been,  and  for  what  sections  they 
were  bound? 

The  most  important  interior  city  is 
Irkutsk,  near  the  center  of  the  route; 
here  there  is  extensive  trading  in  silk, 
porcelain,  tea,  and  furs.  You  will  find 
out  later  where  the  first  three  of  these 
articles  come  from  (pp.  269,  272). 

The  region  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is 
also  a  part  of  Russia.  The  lack  of  rain 
there  would  lead 
one  to  expect 
few  cities.  Yet 
the  map  shows 
several,  the  most 
important  of 
which  are  Bokhara  and 
Khiva  (Fig.  277).  What  are 
the  reasons  for  their 
growth?  The  fact  that  Bo- 
khara and  Khiva  rugs  are 
well  known  in  the  United 
States  suggests  one  of  them. 
While  the  region  is  arid, 
there  is  enough  grass  to  sup- 
port large  herds  of  sheep; 
and  they  produce  the  wool 
from  which  many  of  the  rugs  are  made, 
as  in  Persia  and  Turkey  in  Asia  (p.  262). 
Irrigation,  also,  makes  farming  possible. 

Yet  there  is  another  important  reason 
for  these  cities.  For  many  centuries  the 
principal  overland  route  between  China 
and  Europe  led  through  these  points. 
Marco  Polo  of  Venice,  the  most  cele- 
brated traveler  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
crossed  Persia  and  then  passed  eastward 
near  Bokhara  and  Khiva  on  his  w^ay  to 
China.  Caravan  routes  leading  from 
China,  India,  and  Persia  to  Russia  have 


for  ages  come  together  in  this  section. 
The  trade  caused  by  the  caravans  led  to 
the  growth  of  these  cities.  Formerly  the 
caravans  traveled  on  to  Russia;  but  now, 
as  you  can  see  in  Fig.  268,  railroads  take 
their  burdens  at  these  places.  Note  the 
courses  of  these  roads. 


1.  What  is  the  length  in  miles  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway?  2.  What  differ- 
ences in  the  country  would  a  traveler 
notice  in  making  a  trip  from  Petrograd  to 


©  Brown  Bros. 


Fig.  272.  ^  A  view  of  Vladivostok,  showing  a  part  of  the  harbor 

Vladivostok?  3.  What  farm  products  and 
other  goods  would  he  find  for  sale?  4. 
Name  the  fur-bearing  animals  Review 
of  Siberia.  5.  Why  have  the  questions 
cities  of  Bokhara  and  Khiva  thrived 
though  located  in  an  arid  country? 

1.  Why  is  the  water  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  salty  while  that  of  Lake  Baikal  is 
fresh?  2.  Describe  the  dif-  suggestions 
ference  in  clothing  you  would  for  extra 
expect  to  see  in  a  trip  from  ""^^ 
India  to  Siberia.  3.  Why  are  there  no 
seaports  on  the  northern  coast  of  Siberia? 


266 


ASIA 


IV.     India,  Indo-China,  and  the  Malay  Peninsula 


The  vast  region  known  as  India  is 
about  half  as  large  as  the  United  States 
Ease  of  and  is  part  of  the  British  Em- 

travei  pjj.^  (p^g  3^5)     jhe  EngUsh 

have  made  many  improvements  there. 
Extensive  railroads  have  been  built,  so 


The  season 
in  which  to 
visit  India 


*»€V3*. 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  273. — A  general  view  of  Delhi,  the  capital  of  India 

that  one  can  now  reach  almost  any  part 
of  India  by  rail.  In  fact,  India  has  more 
than  half  the  total  railroad  mileage  of 
Asia. 

At  any  of  the  large  ports  at  which  you 
might  land,  as  at  Bombay  or  Calcutta, 
you  would  find  an  European  section  resem- 
bling one  of  our  own  cities.  Moreover, 
you  could  make  yourself  understood  in 
your  own  language;  for,  although  there 
are  many  native  tongues,  English  is  com- 
monly used  in  business  affairs. 

The  countries  east  of  India  also  enjoy 
a  certain  amount  of  modern  conveniences, 
for  several  of  them  are  under  the  control 
of  European  nations.  In  Fig.  268  locate 
Singapore,  an  important  British  city  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 


Trace   the   French   possessions.    Locate 
the  independent  country  of  Siam. 

In  Fig.  277  note  the  latitude  in  which 
most  of  India  Ues.    As  you  might  expect 
from  this  latitude,   it  has   a 
tropical  climate,  with  a  wet 
and   a  dry  sea- 
son.   During  the  dry  season 
northeast  winds   from   the 
heart  of  the  continent  blow 
over  India,  bringing  little  or 
no  moisture.     There  is   so 
little  rainfall  in  some  years 
that  the  water  supply  gives 
out,  crops  dry  up,  and  the 
people   suffer   from    severe 
famines.    It  is  also  intensely 
hot  on  the  plains,  and  white 
men  can  live  comfortably 
only  in  the  mountains  where 
it  is  cooler.     It  is  evident 
that  traveling  would  not  be 
enjoyable  in  this  season. 

In  the  wet  season,  which  comes  in  our 
summer,  winds  blow  over  the  land  from 
the  direction  of  the  sea.  Abundant  rain 
falls  over  much  of  the  country,  and  crops 
flourish.  Although  the  heat  is  still  great, 
it  is  more  endurable  than  in  the  dry 
season.  This,  then,  is  the  season  to 
choose  for  visiting  India.  From  its 
location,  why  might  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula be  expected  to  have  more  rain- 
fall throughout  the  year  than  India? 

Probably  you  would  be  more  impressed 
with  the  peculiar  customs  of  the  people 
than  with  anything  else  you  might  see. 
You  would  soon  notice  that  the  Hindus, 
as  the  people  of  India  are  called,  are  divid- 
ed into  classes  or  castes;  unlike  ourselves, 


INDIA,  INDO-CHINA,  AND  THE  MALAY  PENINSULA 


267 


Some  cus- 
toms of  the 
people  which 
would  seem 
strange  to  us 


they  do  not  believe  that  all  men  are  born 
free  and  equal.  On  the  streets  you  would 
see  mainly  the  lower  castes, 
to  which  belong  the  poorer 
people,  the  shopkeepers,  ser- 
vants, laborers,  and  beggars. 
If  you  wondered  why  so  few 
of  the  upper  castes  appeared,  you  would 
learn  that  it  is  because  they  think  it  de- 
grading to  mingle  with  those  of  a  lower 
caste.  They  will  not  eat  at  the  same 
table  with  them,  nor  will  they  taste  food 
on  which  so  much  as  the  shadow  of  a 
lower-caste  person  has  fal- 
len. How  might  such  a  be- 
lief prevent  progress? 

The  Hindus  have  many 
superstitions  which  would 
seem  strange  to  us.  For  in- 
stance, thousands  make  pil- 
grimages yearly  to  the 
Ganges  River  in  eastern 
India;  for  they  believe  that 
its  waters  are  sacred  and 
that  bathing  in  them  washes 
away  disease.  In  Siam  you 
would  be  surprised  to  find 
that  next  to  the  king,  the 
natives  hold  the  white  ele- 
phant in  highest  reverence. 
Siam  is  often  called  the  land 
of  the  white  elephant. 

As  you  traveled  through 
India  you  would  find  about 
nine  tenths  of 
the  population 
living    in    the 
country,  since 
farming  is  the  chief  occupa- 
tion.    Millet  is  the  chief  food  of  many 
of  the  people  because  it  can  be  raised  even 
in  the  drier  sections.     Another  important 


grain  is  wheat.  Great  quantities  of  rice 
are  grown  on  the  flooded  lowlands  both 
in  India  and  in  the  Malay  Peninsula.  In 
the  Malay  Peninsula  there  are  many 
large  rubber  plantations.  You  would  also 
see  cotton,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  and  pop- 
pies from  which  opium  is  made.  Spices 
and  tropical  fruits  grow  in  southern  India 
and  in  the  region  north  of  Singapore. 

Tea  is  a  very  important  crop.  You 
would  probably  visit  a  tea  plantation. 
The  tea  plant  thrives  best  on  a  hillside 
where  the  water  can  drain  off  quickly. 


The  occupa- 
tion in  which 
most  of  the 
people  are 
engaged 


©  Ptiblishern'  Photo  Serrire 

Fig.  274. — In  the  native  section  of  Bombay,  India 
Many  of  the  cities  of  the  Orient  have  a  foreign  section  that  is  modem 
in  most  respects,  and  a  native  section  where  the  natives  live  much  as  they 
did  before  Europeans  came. 

It  grows  from  two  to  four  feet  high,  and 
has  leaves  resembling  those  of  a  rose- 
bush. The  leaves  are  picked  several 
times  a  year,  boys  and  girls  often  helping, 


268 


ASIA 


and    are    carefully    dried    before    being 

packed. 

Trace  in  Fig.   267  the  course  of  the 

Ganges  River.     In  what  mountains  does 

Why  the  it   rise?     Note  the  great  ex- 

Ganges  Basin    ^g^^  Qf  j^g  i^^g-^     jl^^^  .g  ^^ 
IS  the  most 

interesting       part  of  India  you  would  be 
section  to  visit  ^Qg^   likely   to    visit,    for    it 

has  the  most  fertile  land,  and  over  a  third 
of  the  immense  population  lives  there. 


more  rain  falls  there  than  in  almost  any 
other  part  of  the  world,  the  river  floods 
much  of  the  valley,  depositing  over  the 
fields  a  rich  sediment  brought  from  the 
mountains.  Because  of  these  facts  the 
Ganges  Valley  is  able  to  support  one  of 
the  densest  populations  of  the  world. 

You  would  pass  hundreds  of  temples 
along  the  banks  of  the  river,  for,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  natives  believe  the  Ganges 


'i^  I'ubiiiihtr^'  Photo  Service 


Fig.  275.  —  Elephants  hauling  logs  in  India 
In  India  the  elephant  is  a  common  beast  of  burden. 


Near  the  mouth  of  the  river  you  would 
pass  through  a  dense  tropical  jungle, 
where  tigers,  elephants,  crocodiles,  poi- 
sonous snakes,  and  many  other  dangerous  . 
animals  live.  Beyond  the  swampy  low- 
land is  Calcutta,  the  largest  city  of  India. 
Locate  it  in  Fig.  277. 

You  would  now  be  traveling  through 
one  of  the  oldest  farming  regions  of  the 
world.  Rice,  tea,  and  many  of  the  other 
crops  already  mentioned  grow  here.  The 
great  fertility  of  the  region  is  due  to  the 
Ganges  River;  for  throughout  the  dry 
season  it  supplies  water  for  irrigating  the 
crops,  and  during  the  wet  season,  when 


is  sacred  —  probably  because  it  is  so 
valuable  in  irrigating  and  fertilizing  the 
land.  In  the  holy  cities  along  the  way  you 
would  see  many  of  these  temples,  and 
flights  of  steps,  thronged  with  pilgrims, 
leading  into  the  water. 


1.  What  facts  help  to  make  traveling 
easy  in  India?  2.  In  what  season  could 
one  best  visit  that  country?  Review 
3 .  Mention  some  of  the  strange  questions 
customs  of  the  people.  4.  Show  the 
prominence  of  agriculture,  and  name  the 
leading  products.  5.  Why  is  the  Ganges 
Valley   the  most  interesting   section   to 


THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 


269 


visit?  6.  Locate  the  following:  India; 
Calcutta;  Himalaya  Mountains;  Siam; 
French  Indo-China;   Singapore. 

1.  Read  Kipling's  Jungle  Book.    2.  On 
a  globe  find  which  is  the  shortest  water 


route  from  Bombay  to  London.  3.  What 
important    products   would    you   expect 
India  to  send  to  Great  Brit-  suggestions 
ain?  What  would  you  expect  ^^'^  ^^^*  "^""^^ 
Great  Britain  to  send  to  India  in  return? 


V.    The  Far  East 
1.    The  Chinese  Republic 


The  Chinese  are  one  of  the  oldest  civi- 
lized races.  They  had  made  great  ad- 
^  vances  long  before  the  time  of 

The  progress  ° 

of  China  in       Christ.     Therefore,  it  is  not 

early  times      strange  that  some  of  the  most 

important  arts  that  man  has  ever  learned 

have  come  from  them.  For 

instance,    they  learned  to 

make  porcelain  dishes  long 

before  the   Europeans;    on 

that  account  such  dishes  are 

stiU  called  chinaware,  even 

though  manufactured  in  the 

United  States  or  in  Europe. 

The  Chinese  invented 
gunpowder.  Our  firecrack- 
ers for  the  Fourth  of  July 
used  to  come  from  China. 
You  may  still  see  packages 
of  firecrackers  marked  in 
Chinese  characters. 

They  also  discovered  how 
to  make  silk  and  paper,  and 
they  invented  the  art  of 
printing.  They  were  the 
first  to  use  the  compass. 
What  articles  have  you 
seen  that  probably  came   from  China? 

You  would  be  likely  to  feel  at  home  in 
China  so  far  as  the  climate  and  appearance 
of  the  country  are  concerned.  In  Fig. 
315  compare  the  latitude  of  China  with 
that  of  the  United  States.      How  much 


farther  south  does  China  reach  than  our 

most  southern  state,  Florida?   Resemblances 

How  much  farther  north  than  ^^^  ^^^^- 
our  most   northern  states?  cwnaandthe 
From   this   comparison   it  is  United  states 
plain  that  much  of  China  has  a  temper- 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  276.  —  A  temple  in  Calcutta,  India 

What  differences  do  you  notice  between  these  buildings  and  those  of 
oxu'  own  country? 


ate  climate.     Perhaps  it  will  surprise  you 
to  learn  that  crossing  China  from  east 

to  west    is    about   as   long   a     i.  SimUarityin 

journey  as  crossing  the  United   ^^^^l  S; 
States.    From  the  Chinese    co^^y 
coast  you  would  travel  westward   over 


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Is  ^'^'^HtaJf      *'ancH2ng  v^r--^"^~\  li 


^     -^     *^"'^/5/ 


PHILIPPINE  IS. 


Kago&him 


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24 


THE  ORIENT 


Scale  of  statute  miles 
P    60  lUO       200       800        4<I0       S<IO 

Capitals  of  countries  ®  Railroads  - 


118^  Longitude 


East  126  '^ 


Greenwich  134^ 


Fig.  278 


272 


ASIA 


broad,  fertile  valleys  resembling  those 
along  our  Mississippi  Basin.  Beyond 
these  lowlands  rise  vast  plateaus  (Fig. 
267)  which  remind  one  of  our  western 
plains;  for  the  chief  occupation  is  herding, 


3.  Differences 
in  appearance 
of  cities 


Fig.  279.  —  A  Chinese  pagoda  and  temple 

and  there  are  some  desert  areas  where 
even  that  is  impossible.  Along  the  west- 
ern border  extend  many  lofty  mountain 
ranges.  What  great  plateau  lies  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  China  (Figs.  267 
and  268)?  What  section  of  great  impor- 
tance in. our  country  is  unlike  any  section 
in  China? 

Since  the  climate  of  China  is  some- 
what like  our  own,  we  may  expect  many 
2.  Similarity  in  of  the  Same  farm  products 
farm  products  ^Yisit  are  raised  in  the  United 
States.  Wheat,  barley,  corn  and  other 
grains,  and  beans,  peas,  and  many  vari- 
eties of  vegetables  are  grown  in  northern 
China.  In  the  south  sugar  cane,  cotton, 
and  oranges  are  grown.  Rice,  of  which 
we  raise  only  a  little,  is  a  principal  crop 


and  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  food  for 
the  Chinese.  Among  the  important  prod- 
ucts which  we  do  not  produce  are  tea 
and  raw  silk;  China  produces  more 
of  the  latter  than  any  other  country  in 
the  world  except  Japan. 

The  Chinese  cities  and 
towns  appear  very  different 
from  our  own. 
In  our  large 
cities,  such  as 
New  York  or  Boston,  the 
foreign  quarter  is  likely  to 
be  shabby  and  run-down, 
while  the  native  section  is 
w^ell  built  and  well  kept.  In 
the  Chinese  cities  and  ports 
where  foreigners  —  British, 
French,  Americans,  and 
others — are  allowed  to  make 
their  homes,  the  opposite  is 
true.  The  foreign  colonies, 
like  those  of  Shanghai  and 
Hongkong,  consisting  chief- 
ly of  Europeans,  resemble  American  or 
European  cities  very  closely.  The  na- 
tive sections  of  these  cities,  although  they 
have  some  fine  homes,  are  generally 
crowded  and  dirty,  with  narrow,  un- 
paved  streets,  and  without  water  systems, 
sewers,  or  lights. 

Many  of  the  cities  are  surrounded  by 
high  w^alls  with  gates  that  are  closed  at 
night,  as  was  the  case  in  European  cities 
in  olden  times. 

The  houses,  seldom  more  than  one 
story  in  height,  are  built  close  together, 
and  the  stores  have  gaudy  decorations 
and  signs.  The  streets  are  crowded 
with  rickishas,  or  sedan  chairs  carried  by 
men;  with  men  pushing  wheelbarrows  or 
drawing  low,  heavy  two-wheeled  carts; 


THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 


273 


with  peddlers  carrying  baskets  slung  from 
poles  across  their  shoulders;  wdth  crip- 
ples and  diseased  beggars  seeking  alms; 
and  with  women  carrying  children  on 
their  backs.  Even  in  Peking,  the  capital, 
where  there  are  many  wide  streets,  most 
of  the  streets  are  too  narrow  for  car- 
riages, and  since  most  of  them  are  not 
paved  they  are  worn  in  deep  ruts,  and 
after  rains  are  full  of  mud-holes. 

Many  of  the  cities  are  so  crowded  that 
great  numbers  of  the  people  live  in 
boats  on  the  harbors  and  rivers.  Espe- 
cially is  this  the  case  in  Canton,  the  larg- 
est port  of  southern  China.  Chickens 
are  kept,  and  even  gardens  are  raised,  on 
many  of  these  boats.  Locate  the  cities 
mentioned  on  Fig.  278. 

Traveling  accommodations  in  China 
are  not  so  convenient  as  they  are  in  this 
country.  China  has  very  few  railroads; 
and  only  a  few  cities  in  the  interior  can 


©  Brown  Bros. 

Fig.  281.  —  A  Chinese  orchestra 

The  sounds  made  by  these  players  are  very  different  from  what  we  call 
music.  Notice  the  strange  kinds  of  instnunents.  What,  do  you  suppose, 
do  people  of  other  countries  think  of  our  music? 


I'lioln  Ijij  Elmendorf      ij^  Ewim/  dalbnmy 

Fig.  280.  —  Market  scene  in  Hongkong 
Study  this  picture  with  the  text  to  the  left. 

be  reached  by  rail.    In  Fig.  278  trace  the 
railroad  lines.    In  what  sections  are  they 

found?      What   4.  Differences 
important   cities    ^^  ways  of  travel 

do  they  connect  ?  Between 
Chinese  seaports  and  river 
ports,  travel  is  generally  by 
water,  and  good  accommo- 
dations can  be  secured  on 
the  larger  river  boats.  Since 
the  rivers  are  open  to  navi- 
gation far  up  toward  their 
sources,  the  easiest  way  of 
getting  into  the  interior  is 
by  boat,  especially  on  the 
Yangtze  River.  Trace  this 
river  on  the  map. 

Canals  connect  many  of 
the  rivers  with  each  other, 
and  also  many  of  the  cities. 
Find  the  Grand  Canal  on 
the  map  and  tell  what  cities 


274 


ASIA 


Fig.  282.  —  One  of  the  gates  through  the  walls  of  Peking 

Many  cities  of  China  have  walls  similar  to  the  one  here  shown.  This 
wall  is  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  high  and  about  sixty  feet  thick  at  the  bottom. 
It  is  made  of  clay  and  plaster  faced  by  brick.  It  was  built  to  keep  out  rob- 
bers from  the  desert  to  the  north.  Do  you  think  it  would  keep  out  an  army 
with  heavy  cannon? 


it  connects.  Poles,  oars,  and  sails  take  the 
place  of  steam,  and  traveling  is  naturally 
very  slow. 

Chinese  roads  are  greatly  inferior  to 
ours.  Most  of  them  are  narrow  and  in  bad 
repair,  so  that  carriages 
usually  cannot  pass  over 
them.  In  northern  China, 
especially  in  Manchuria  and 
about  Peking,  there  are 
some  good  wagon  roads 
over  which  people  travel  in 
two-wheeled  covered  carts, 
drawn  by  donkeys  or  small 
horses. 

Across  the  desert  of  Gobi 
travel  is  usually  by  camel, 
and  it  is  not  unusual  to  see 
in  the  streets  of  Peking 
camel  trains  bearing  loads 
of  grain  or  passengers  from 
Mongolia.  Fig.  283. 


Traveling  ])y  wheelbar- 
row is  common  over  the 
narrow  footpaths  of  the 
interior.  Pack  horses  and 
donkeys  are  also  often 
used  (Fig.  283),  especially 
in  mountainous  parts  of  the 
country. 

Travel  by  automobile  is 
not  possible  except  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  large 
cities,  where  many  Ameri- 
can machines  may  be  seen. 
The  river  plains  of  east- 
ern China  are  more  thickly 
populated  than 
any  other  region 
in  the  world.  In- 
deed, if  we  do  not  count  the 
desert  and  mountain  re- 
gions, China  is  almost  as  thickly  settled 
as  the  state  of  Texas  would  be  if  all  the 
people  of  the  United  States  lived  there. 
It  is,  therefore,  no  wonder  that  the  Chinese 
farms  are  small.     We  should  hardly  call 


S.  Differences 
in  appearance 
of  farms 


©  Brown  Bros. 

Traveling  by  donkey  through  a  Chinese  village 


THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 


275 


them  farms  at  all,  for  the  majority  have 
only  about  two  acres  of  ground.  On  this 
area  must  be  grown  all  the  different  things 
required  to  support  one  family.  Thus  you 
might  see  a  flooded  half-acre  of  rice,  for 
instance,  with  beans  growing  on  ridges  on 
the  sides,  and  with  perhaps  a  few  mul- 
berry trees  on  raised  ground  in  one  corner. 

The  methods  of  farming  are  also  very 
different  from  ours.  Most  of  the  work  is 
done  by  hand,  with  the  aid  of  crude  im- 
plements. Why  can  little  farm  machinery 
be  employed?  Some  of  the  land  is  irri- 
gated and  water  is  pumped  or  carried 
from  the  rivers  and  canals  not  only  to 
land  of  moderate  slope,  as  in  the  United 
States,  but  also  from  terrace  to  terrace, 
to  the  very  tops  of  the  hills. 

Chinese  children  are  brought  up  very 
differently  from  children  in  our  country. 

6.    Differences      ^^^^     of     the     iustrUCtioU     of 

in  training  of      children    is    given    them    by 

children  °  -^ 

their  parents  and  they  are 
taught  very  thoroughly  to  obey  and 
respect  their  parents  and  superiors. 

Until  recently  there  were  no  public 
schools  such  as  we  have  and  only  the 
well-to-do  parents  could  afford  to  pay 
tuition  for  private  instruction.  When- 
ever parents  were  able  they  sent  their 
boys,  and  sometimes  girls,  to  some  private 
or  mission  school,  to  learn  to  read  and 
write  the  simplest  Chinese  characters. 

At  the  present  time  China  is  organizing 
a  good  public  school  system  for  both 
boys  and  girls,  and  there  are  many  good 
public  elementary  schools  in  the  cities. 
In  nearly  every  city  and  town  there  are 
also  excellent  mission  schools  where  Chi- 
nese cliildren  are  being  educated. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  these  differ- 
ences  between    China   and   the   United 


States  is  found  in  the  religion  of  the 
Chinese.  They  have  believed  that  what- 
ever their  ancestors  did,  they 

,     ■,  r-i-  ii     •       p    ji  Some  of  the 

must  do.  hmce  their  fathers  reasons  for 
had  no  railroads,  steamboats,  these  differ- 
or  automobiles,  they  have 
wanted  none  themselves.  Thus  their 
progress  has  been  checked,  and  they 
have  been  kept  from  adopting  European 
and  American  ways  of  living. 


Fig.  284. 


)  E.  M.  Newman 

Chinese  children  of  Canton 


Another  reason  why  the  Chinese  have 
until  recently  made  but  little  progress 
has  been  the  lack  of  education.  The 
Chinese  have  been  unwilling  to  learn 
about  new  things.  Until  recently  they 
had  never  traveled  much  abroad,  nor 
allowed  foreigners  to  visit  them.  In  fact, 
they  have  looked  down  upon  foreigners 
because  they  represented  new  customs. 

A  third  reason  has  been  the  poor 
government  of  China,  which  was  long  a 
monarchy.    China 's  vast  area,  with  many 


276 


ASIA 


different  groups  of  people,  has  made  it 
very  difficult  to  govern.  How  does  it 
compare  in  area  with  the  United  States? 
It  has  at  times  been  difficult  to  prevent 
wars  between  the  various  provinces. 

A  few  years  ago, 
however,  China  became 
a  republic,  and  since 
that  time  the  govern- 
ment has  constantly 
improved.  The  Chi- 
nese are  losing  their 
dislike  for  new  customs 
and  methods  of  work 
and  are  studying  those 
of  Europe  and  America. 


1.  Tell  about  the 
progress  of  China  in 
Review         early    times. 

questions         2.    HoW  doeS 

China  resemble  the 
United  States  in  cli- 
mate and  appearance? 

3.  In   farm   products? 

4.  How  do  the  Chinese 
cities  differ  from  ours? 

5.  The  ways  of  travel?  6.  The  farms? 
7.  State  some  facts  about  the  education 
of  the  children.  8.  Locate  Peking; 
Shanghai;  Hongkong;  Canton;  Hankow; 
the  Hwang  River;    the  Yangtze  River. 

1.  Find  out  about  the  great  wall  of 
China.  2.  How  can  you  distinguish  a 
Suggestions  Chinese  from  other  men? 
for  extra  3.  Why  shoxild  China  have 
^°^  an   even   greater   variety   of 

farm  products  than  the  United  States? 

4.  How  would  you  expect  the  Grand 
Canal  to  be  of  importance  to  Peking? 

5.  How  might  railroads  help  greatly  to 
prevent  the  terrible  famines  that  some- 


Fig.  285.  —  Japanese  girl 
Notice  the  idol.    What  do  you  think  the  girl 
is  doing? 


times  occur  in  China?  6.  Write  a  letter 
about  a  trip  up  the  Yangtze  River.  7. 
Why  are  nearly  all  the  important  cities 
of  China  in  its  eastern  section?  8.  De- 
scribe the  costumes  of  the  Chinese. 


2.  The  Japanese  Empire 

The  best  way  to 
reach  Japan  from  the 
United  States  is  to  take 
a   ship    at 

Q  j-y  How  to  reach 

ban    l^ran-  japan  from 

Cisco      or  the  United 

rt  1  States 

feeattle  and 

cross  the  Pacific.  If 
one  desires  to  go  direct- 
ly to  the  capital  and 
largest  city,  Tokyo,  one 
travels  by  steamer  from 
Seattle  to  Yokohama, 
the  port  of  Tokyo. 
This  route  is  the  short- 
est and  quickest  way 
to  cross  the  Pacific.  On 
Fig.  315  compare  the 
length  of  this  trip  with  that  from  New 
York  to  London.  By  taking  a  steamer 
at  San  Francisco  one  can  visit  the  Ha- 
waiian Islands  on  the  way.  Trace  both 
routes  in  Fig.  315. 

For  more  than  200  years  before  1854, 
foreigners  were  shut  out  of  Japan  and  the 
Japanese  did  not  go  abroad.  Great  changes 
They  wanted  to  have  nothing  in  Japan  in 

,         1  •  i  1         i  1  i    •         recent  years 

to  do  With  other  countries. 
But  in  that  year  they  began  to  trade  with 
us,  and  shortly  afterward  Japan  was 
opened  freely  to  all  foreigners  and  the 
Japanese  themselves  began  to  go  abroad. 
Since  the  Japanese  have  begun  to  exchange 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 


277 


ideas  with  other  countries,  a  great  change 
has  taken  place  in  Japan.  It  has  adopt- 
ed many  foreign  customs,  introduced 
modern  machinery,  built  railroads,  and 
made  many  improvements. 

Even  the  Japanese  government  has 
been  changed;  it  is  now  patterned  very 
much  after  that  of  Germany  before  the 
World  War.  Modern  ideas  on  war  have 
been  especially  copied  by  the  Japanese, 
who  have  taken  pride  in  developing  a 
powerful  army  and  navy.  Indeed,  the 
Japanese  navy  now  ranks  among  the 
largest  in  the  world. 

One  of  the  causes  of  Japan's  desire  for 
military  strength  is  her  necessity  for  new 
territory  on  account  of  her 
dense  population.  Because 
of  this  need,  Japan  has  ad- 
ded extensively  to  her  ter- 
ritory since  1895.  In  that 
year  the  island  of  Formosa 
was  obtained  from  China. 
Later,  after  defeating  Russia 
in  war,  Japan  received  im- 
portant rights  in  Manchuria 
and  later  got  possession  of 
the  large  peninsula  of  Korea, 
now  called  Chosen  (Fig.  278), 
just  west  of  the  principal 
island  of  Japan.  Recently  it 
has  taken  over  Germany's 
claim  to  the  Shantung  Pen- 
insula in  China  and  man}^ 
islands  north  of  the  equator 
in  the  Pacific.  Thus  it  has 
gained  very  important  pos- 
sessions on  the  continent 
and  in  the    neighboring  ocean    regions. 

In  the  great  change  that  has  taken 
place  in  Japan  in  recent  years,  there  are 
many  old  customs,  ways  of  doing  things, 


Interesting 
mixtures  of 
the  old  and 
the  new  in 
Japan 


and  ways  of  thinking  about  things,  that 
the  Japanese  have  not  changed.  The 
traveler  in  Japan  will  see, 
therefore,  interesting  mixtures 
of  the  old  and  the  new.  Wide 
differences  are  noticed  in 
methods  of  transportation.  In 
the  cities  electric  cars  are  filled  with 
people  as  in  our  own  large  cities;  and  at 
the  same  time  men  largely  take  the  place 
of  wagons  in  carrying  heavy  burdens. 
Rickishas,  drawn  by  men,  take  the  places 
of  automobiles  and  carriages. 

At  the  hotel  the  visitor  notices  a  sign 
stating  that  accommodations  are  provid- 
ed both  for  Japanese  and  for  foreigners. 


©  E.  M.  Nexoman 

Fig.  286.  —  Threshing  rice  in  Japan 
Rice  grows  on  stalks  and  must  be  threshed  like  wheat.     The  grain  is 
being  separated  here  by  pulling  the  heads  of  the  straw  through  slits  in  a  piece 
of  metal.   Why  do  these  Japanese  not  have  threshing  machines  as  we  do  in 
our  country? 

and  he  is  likely  to  spend  an  unpleasant 
night  if  he  forgets  that  he  is  a  "foreigner" 
in  Japan.  The  Japanese  have  no  tables, 
chairs,  or  beds,  and  little  other  furniture 


278 


ASIA 


J 


in  their  rooms.  They  sit  on  mats  and 
sleep  on  thin  mattresses  laid  on  the  floor. 
The  houses  are  small,  generally  with 
thatched  roofs.    The  windows,  doors  and 


Yet  many  families  draw  the  silk  from  the 
cocoon  by  old-fashioned  methods,  by 
hand. 

Small  fields,  or  paddies,  of  growing  rice, 


Fig.  287.  —  Japanese  tempie 


Newman 


partitions  are  usually  made  of  decorated 
panels  or  screens. 

A  visitor  finds  modern  paper  factories 
and  cotton  mills  such  as  we  have;  and  at 
the  same  time  thousands  of  families  manu- 
facturing paper  by  hand  in  their  homes, 
while  spinning  and  weaving  are  carried  on 
in  many  of  the  households.  There  are 
great  silk  factories;  for  Japan  leads  the 
world  in  silk  production.  A  large  part  of 
all  our  silk  comes  from  Japan,  and  Japa- 
nese of  nearly  all  classes  wear  silk  garments. 


surrounded  by  irrigation  ditches,  are  to 
be  seen  in  almost  every  valley.  Rice  is 
the  most  common  food  and  is  often  eaten 
with  fish.  Until  recent  years  meat  and 
milk,  butter  and  cheese  were  almost  un- 
known. Dairying  is  now  beginning  tc 
be  introduced. 


1 .  Describe  two  routes  from  the  United 
States  to  Japan.  2.  Why  has  Japan 
changed  greatly  in  recent  years?  3.  What 
are  some  of   the  changes?     4.    Why  is 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 


279 


Suggestions 
for  extra 
work 

States?    2. 


there  a  mixture  of  the  old 
and  the  new  in  Japan?  5. 
Review  Give     examples 

questions         ^f  the  old  and 

the  new  that   a  visitor  in 

Japan  might  expect  to  see. 

1.    Can  you  show  in  Fig. 

315  how  one  might  reach 

Tokyo  by  going 

eastward  from 

the     United 

Make  a  collec- 
tion of  Japanese  articles 
such  as  fans,  paper  napkins, 
silk,  etc.     3.   How  does 
Japanese   printing   differ 
from  ours?   4.  Write  a  com- 
position on  Japanese  chil- 
dren, describing  their  clothing,  their  work, 
and  their  play.    5.  If  you  were  to  dine  in 
a  Japanese  home,  what  would  you  expect 
to  find  on  the  table? 

1.  Does  the  mainland  of  Asia  extend  farther 
north  than  that  of  North  America?  2.  In  what 
respects  are  the  Lena  and  Macken- 
zie rivers  like  each  other?  3.  In 
what  respect  do  Tibet  and  Bolivia 
resemble  each  other?  4.  What 
oceans  bound  Asia  on  three  sides?  5.  Show  that 
the  chief  highlands  of  Europe  are  an  extension 
westward  of  those  of  Asia.    6.  What  countries 


Map 

questions 
on  Asia 


Fig.  288.  —  A  small  village  in  Korea 

The  Koreans  resemble  the  Chinese  in  many  respects.     What  do  you 
think  the  two  persons  at  the  stream  are  doing?    Locate  Korea. 

of  Asia  are  chiefly  lowland  countries?  7.  What 
countries  of  Asia  are  chiefly  highland  countries? 
8.  What  countries  contain  large  areas  of  both 
highlands  and  lowlands?  9.  Locate  the  Ganges 
River;  the  Yangtze  River;  the  Hwang  River. 

10.  Does  the  latitude  of  most  of  the  large  cities 
of  Asia  correspond  more  closely  to  that  of  the 
large    cities   of   North   America   or   of   Europe? 

11.  Locate  the  capitals  and  largest  cities  of 
India;  China;  Japan.  Is  the  capital  always  the 
largest  city?  12,  Name  four  important  penin- 
sulas of  Asia.  13.  Two  important  seas.  14.  W^hat 
possession  of  the  United  States  lies  southeast  of 
Asia? 


PART    VI.      AUSTRALIA,     NEW    ZEALAND, 
THE    ISLANDS    OF    THE    PACIFIC 

I.     Australia 


AND 


When  the  EngUsh  took  possession  of 
Australia  over  a  century  ago,  they  found 
strange  plants,  animals,  and 
^hrAusS  people  there.  Many  of  the 
used  to  be  plants  Were  unlike  those  in 
littie^raiue  ^^Y  other  part  of  the  world 
and  were  of  little  use.  Giant 
trees,  nearly  as  large  as  those  of  our 
Western  States,  were  found  growing  along 
the  eastern  coast,  and  in  the  forests  were 
great  tree  ferns.  Part  of  the  interior  was 
covered  by  a  low  bush  having  hard, 
prickly  leaves,  and  often  growing  so 
densely  that  it  was  difficult  to  pass 
through  it. 


Wm«.Ei>(,Co.,N.ir. 


Fig.  292.  —  Annual  rainfall  in  Australia 

None  of  the  domestic  animals  used  to 
produce  food  or  to  carry  goods,  which 
are  common  in  other  continents,  was 
found  there.    The  largest  animal  was  the 


kangaroo,  which  instead  of  running  on 
all  fours  jumps  along  on  its  hind  legs, 
using  its  tail  for  support  as  shown  in 
Fig.  293. 


©  Keystone-Burton  Holmes 

Fig.  293 — Kangaroos 

Moreover,  the  native  people  were  a 
very  low^  class  of  savages,  whom  it  was 
difficult  to  teach. 

Chiefly  because  of  these  conditions, 
Australia  seemed  to  be  of  little  impor- 
tance. At  first  it  was  used  by  England 
chiefly  as  a  prison  colony,  to  which 
criminals  were  sent.  It  was  a  very  secure 
prison,  too,  for  there  was  little  danger 
that  a  man  sent  there  would  soon  reach 
home  again. 

As  the  continent  came  to  be  better 
known,  however,  people  began  to  go  there 
of  their  own  accord  to  live.  Now  Australia 
has  over  5,000,000   inhabitants.     Com- 


283 


284 


AUSTRALASIA 


pare  its  area  and  population  with  those 

of  the  United  States  (p.  310).    Most   of 

the    white    inhabitants    live 

Where  the       j^  the  southem  and  eastern 

present  popu-  ^  , 

lation  is  found  portions.      Let    US    See    why. 
and  reasons      r^^^   temperature  is  not  the 

for  this  dis-  f         1         •        1 

tribution  chief  reason,  for  that  is  pleas- 

ant enough  in  a  large  part  of 
Australia.  Prove  this  by  means  of  the 
latitude  shown  on  the  map  (Fig.  289). 
What  portion  is  in  the  tropical  zone 
(Fig.  289)? 

The  great  difficulty  is  the  lack  of  rain, 
which  is  due  to  the  location  of  the  moun- 
tains and  the  direction  of  the  winds.  The 
larger  part  of  Australia  is  a  low  plateau, 
with  the  chief  mountain  range  on  the 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Seriicc 

Fig.  294.  —  Tropical  foliage  in  the  mountains  in  the  northern  part  of 

Australia 
Can  a  similar  scene  be  found  in  America? 


eastern  side.    Point  out  these  mountains 
on  Fig.  289. 

The  prevailing  winds  come  from  the 
southeast,  so  that  they  must  blow  over 
these  mountains  before    reaching    the 


interior.  This  causes  heavy  rainfall  on 
the  eastern  slopes;  but  as  the  winds  con- 
tinue on  toward  the  interior,  they  become 
very  dry.  At  a  distance  of  350  miles 
from  the  coast,  it  is  so  dry  that  farming 
without  irrigation  is  impossible.  Still 
farther  west  there  are  extensive  deserts. 
If  3^ou  examine  Fig.  289  a^ou  will  see 
signs  of  the  desert,  for  some  of  the  rivers 
flow  into  lakes  that  have  no  outlet.  These 
lakes,  therefore,  are  salty,  like  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  of  Utah.  There  is  so  little  rain- 
fall west  of  the  mountain  range  that  the 
Murray  River  becomes  smaller  toward 
its  mouth,  and  its  chief  tributary,  the 
Darling,  dries  up  almost  entirely  in  its 
lower  course.     Locate  these  rivers. 

When  it  is  remembered 
that  the  northern  part  of 
Australia  has  a  tropical 
climate,  and  that  the  central 
and  western  parts  are  arid 
or  desert,  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand why  most  of  the 
people  Uve  in  the  southeast- 
ern part.  Most  of  the  good 
farmland  is  found  there. 
The  chief  river,  the  Murray, 
is  there  also,  and  so  are  the 
principal  cities.  In  Fig.  290 
name  four  of  the  largest. 

Since  the  plentiful  rainfall 
in  the  southeastern  section 
favors  agriculture,  the  Eng- 
lish settlers  have  imported 
to  this  region  many  of  the 
plants  and  animals  common 
at  home.  The  climate  is  like  that  of  our 
southeastern  states,  and  many  of  the 
same  crops  are  grown.  Wheat  is  the 
largest  crop,  for  it  can  be  grown  not 
only  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  moun- 


AUSTRALIA 


285 


tains,  but,  with  the  aid  of  irrigation,  on 
the  western  slopes  also.  Along  the  coast, 
where  the  rainfall  is  greatest, 
STinTut^ced  corn,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  and 
occupations  of  tobacco  flourish,  as  well  as 
thepeope  fjuits  and  vegetables  such  as 
1.  Importance  of  arc  raiscd  in  our 

fanning  in  well-  /  x 

watered  portion     OWU  COUntry.  In 

Victoria,  in  the 
south,  there  is  excellent 
pasturage,  and  dairying  is 
an  important  industry.  In 
the  drier  region  about  the 
mouth  of  the  Murray  River 
there  are  large  vineyards, 
the  grapes  being  grown  for 
raisins  or  to  make  wine. 
Tropical  fruits  flourish  to- 
ward the  north,  in  the  torrid 
zone. 

West  of  the  mountain 
ranges  is  a  vast  plain,  having 
too  little  rainfall 
for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  crops  but 
enough  to  pro- 
grass.  One  of  the  greatest 
pasture  regions  in  the  world  lies  between 
these  mountains  and  the  deserts  in  the 
central  and  western  portions.  Vast  grass- 
lands stretch  for  many  miles,  varied  only 
with  scattered  trees  or  patches  of  bare 
sand  and  rock. 

Cattle  are  raised  on  the  western  slopes 
of  the  mountains,  particularly  in  Queens- 
land, where  the  warm,  moist  cUmate  af- 
fords good  pasturage.  Sheep  thrive  on 
coarser  grass  than  do  cattle,  and  beyond 
the  cattle  ranges,  up  to  the  very  edge  of 
the  deserts,  there  are  great  sheep  ranches. 
New  South  Wales,  south  of  Queensland, 
has  half  of  the  sheep  in  Australia. 


One  great  difficulty  is  that  what  Uttle 
rain  there  is  comes  very  irregularly,  and 
droughts  often  last  for  long  periods, 
sometimes  causing  millions  of  sheep  to 
die  of  thirst  or  starvation.  Australia  has 
long  been  known  as  one  of  the  greatest  of 


2.  Why  sheep 
and  cattle  rais- 
ing is  the  prin- 
cipal industry 


duce  good 


Consult  Fig. 
probably  taken. 


Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  295.  —  Sorting  wool  for  shipment 
289  to  find  the  part  of  Australia  in  which  this  picture  was 

sheep  countries,  and  nearly  a  sixth  of  all 
the  sheep  in  the  world  are  raised  there. 

Australia  has  become  of  great  value  to 
England  as  a  source  of  food.  Recall  some 
of  the  reasons  why  England 

Why  Austra- 

is    very    dependent    on    her   ua  is  now  one 
colonies   for    food    (p.    208).    of  the  most 

r»    1         important 

Wheat  has  long  been  one  of  the   parts  of  the 
chief  exports  to  England.  The   p^^*^"^^""" 
fast  refrigerator  ships  of  the 
present  day  have  made  it  possible  to 
send  perishable  foods  all  the  way  to  Eng- 
land.   Thus  a  large  portion  of  the  frozen 
beef  and  mutton  consumed  in  that  coun- 
try comes  from  AustraHa.    Butter,  cheese, 
and  other  dairy  products  are  shipped  in 


286 


AUSTRALASIA 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  296.  ^Bringing  wheat  to  a  railroad  station  in  Australia 
Many  Australian  ranches  are  fifty  or  more  miles  from  a  railroad.     This 
wheat  will  probably  be  shipped  from  Sydney  to  Europe. 


large   quantities,  as  are  also  vegetables 
and  fresh  fruits. 

Important  raw  materials  used  in  English 
manufactures  also  come  from  Australia. 
From  what  you  have  already  read,  what 


important  textile  material 
would  you  expect  AustraUa 
to  export?  Indeed,  Aus- 
tralian wool  is  considered 
the  best  in  the  world.  As 
might  be  expected,  many  of 
the  hides  used  in  leather 
manufacture  in  England 
come  from  that  continent. 
A  large  variety  of  min- 
eral resources  has  been 
found  since  the  continent 
has  become  better  known. 
There  are  valuable  deposits 
of  silver,  copper,  tin,  coal, 
and  other  minerals.  Gold 
is  the  most  valuable  min- 
eral, however,  and  Australia 
has  become  one  of  the  chief  gold-produc- 
ing countries  in  the  world.  In  Fig.  290 
locate  Coolgardie,  in  the  western  desert, 
where  the  most  important  gold  mines 
are  located. 


II.     New  Zealand 


Why  a  visit  to 
New  Zealand 
would  be  en- 
joyable 


In  Fig.  289  locate  the  two  large  islands 
of  New  Zealand,  lying  southeast  of  Aus- 
tralia. Estimate  their  dis- 
tance from  Australia.  If  you 
visited  New  Zealand  you 
would  find  that  it  is  a  farming 
country  Uke  AustraHa,  and  that  similar 
products  are  raised.  But  it  has  a  pleas- 
anter  climate,  for  it  is  cooler  and  has 
more  rainfall.  Therefore,  there  are  no 
deserts  in  New  Zealand  as  there  are  in 
Australia,  and  there  are  fewer  obstacles 
in  the  way  of  successful  farming. 

A  visitor  would  probably  enjoy  the 
scenery  most,  for  it  is  especially  fine.  The 
surface  of  the  islands  is  very  rugged,  and 


there  are  many  lofty  mountain  peaks. 
Heavy  snows  fall  upon  the  higher  moun- 
tains; from  these  snow  fields  large  gla- 
ciers descend  the  mountain  valleys.  The 
snow-capped  mountains  and  fiords  are  as 
beautiful  as  those  of  Norway  or  of  the 
"Inside  Passage"  along  the  northwest- 
ern coast  of  North  America  (p.  143). 

There  are  also  some  remarkable  vol- 
canic regions  where  the  ground  itself  is 
merely  a  crust  beneath  which  boil  vast 
quantities  of  liquid  mud.  Over  this  re- 
gion rise  clouds  of  steam,  and  there  are 
many  hot  springs,  lakes  of  boiling  water, 
and  geysers  more  magnificent  than  those 
of  the  Yellowstone  Park  (p.  134). 


THE  EAST  INDIES 


287 


Why  the  East 
Indies  have 
long  been  of 
great  impor- 
tance 


III.     The  East  Indies 

Between  Australia  and  Asia  are  some 
very  important  islands.  Most  of  them 
are  small.  Java,  however,  is 
about  the  size  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  and  Borneo  is 
about  six  times  as  large.  What 
other  large  islands  do  you 
find  in  Fig.  290?  All  these  islands  to- 
gether form  a  group,  or  archipelago, 
kno^vn  as  the  East  Indies. 

It  was  these  islands,  as  well  as  India 
and  the  Malay  Peninsula,  that  Columbus 
was  trying  to  reach  when  he  discovered 
America  (p.  35).  He  undertook  his  voy- 
age in  order  to  find  a  short  and  easy 
route  by  which  to  bring  to  Europe  the 
valuable  products  that  had  long  been 
coming  from  the  Indies. 

The  climate  and  products  of  these 
islands  resemble  those  of  the  West  Indies 
in  many  ways,  although  the  former  have 


1 

J 

b3 

^-  ■  ^^W^^jT  A  '            '->■ 

K 

V:..  %-    , 

^     > 

!>■«,. 


Fig.  297. — A  plow  used  by  the  natives  of  Java 
Even  this  crude  plow  is  far  better  than  the  wooden  plow  used  in  many 
backward  countries. 


©Keystone  View  Co.,  Int 

Fig.  298.  —  Mt.  Cook,  New  Zealand 
Locate  this  mountain  on  Fig.  289.   What  is  its  height? 
Explain  the  dense  tree  growth  by  reference  to  Fig.  292. 

higher  temperatures  and  more  moisture. 

Fig.  292  shows  how  heavy  the  rainfall  is. 
In  this  tropical  region  grow 
extensive  forests  containing 
many  kinds  of  valuable 
woods.  Most  of  the  world's 
supply  of  rubber  comes 
from  this  region.  Unlike 
the  rubber  trees  of  South 
America,  which  are  scat- 
tered through  the  forest, 
(p.  192),  those  of  this 
region  are  raised  in  huge 
plantations.  Thus  the  rub- 
ber can  be  more  easily  and 
cheaply  secured.  You  have 
probably  heard  of  Java 
coffee.  Tea,  indigo,  rice, 
sugar  cane,  tobacco,  cotton, 
and  grain  are  also  impor- 
tant products.    Most  of  the 


288 


AUSTRALASIA 


world's  spices  used  to  come  from  these 
islands;  on  that  account  they  were  once 
known  as  the  Spice  Islands.  They  still 
supply  many  spices.  From  the  very 
earliest  times,  too,  they  have  been  noted 
for  their  precious  stones. 

So  valuable  have  been  these  products 
that  European  nations  have  eagerly  taken 


possession  of  this  region.  England,  as 
usual,  has  a  part.  Point  it  out  (Fig.  290). 
This  time,  however,  she  has  not  obtained 
the  lion's  share.  That  was  secured 
many  years  ago  by  the  little  country  of 
The  Netherlands.  Name  the  large  islands 
that  are  controlled,  wholly  or  in  part,  by 
the  Dutch. 


IV.     The  Smaller  Islands  of  the   Pacific 


■<  K /- 

Fig.  299.      Workers  in  rubber  in  the  East  Indies 
The  simpler  processes  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber  are  carried  on  near 
the  sources  of  the  supply.    These  natives  of  Sumatra  are  drying  and  fold- 
ing sheets  of  crude  rubber  for  shipment. 

In  Fig.  290  you  will  see  that  there  are 
many  small  islands  in  the  Pacific.  Hun- 
dreds of  others  are  too  small 
to  be  shown  on  the  map. 
Many  of  the  islands  are  the 
tops  of  mountains  rising  from 
the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  while 
others  are  merely  coral  reefs.  Al- 
though most  of  them  lie  in  the  tropics, 
they  are  too  small  to  be  of  great  value, 


The  great 
number  of 
islands  in  the 
Pacific,  and 
their  little 
value 


and  little  is  heard  of  them. 
In  addition  to  the  Ha- 
waiian Islands,  several 
other  islands  in  the  Pacific 
are  possessions  of  the 
United  States.  Give  their 
names  and  locate  them  on 
the  map  (Fig.  315).  These 
islands  are  used  mainly  as 
coaling  stations  on  the  voy- 
age across  the  Pacific. 

One  of  the  largest  islands 
is  New  Guinea,  just  north 
of  Australia,  which  is  not 
usually  classed  as  one  of  the 
East  Indies.  Among  what 
three  nations  is  it  divided? 
Fierce  savages  inhabit  its 
forests,  and  very  few  Euro- 
peans live  there. 

Among  the  smaller  groups 
are  the  Fiji  Islands.  Find  these.  To 
what  country  do  they  belong?  What  two 
groups  lie  west  of  the  Fiji  Islands? 


1.  Why  was  Australia  formerly  thought 
to  be  of  little  value?  2.  Why  is  most  of 
the  population  in  the  south-  Review 
eastern  portion?  3.  Why  is  questions 
grazing  the  principal  industry  of  Aus- 
tralia?   4.  What  are  the  chief  differences 


THE  SMALLER  ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC 


289 


between  New  Zealand  and  Australia?  5. 
What  are  the  chief  islands  of  the  East 
Indies?  6.  What  are  their  chief  products? 
1.  How  could  you  reach  Australia  from 
where  you  Hve?  2.  If  you  were  to  go  to  an 
Suggestions  AustraHan  city  to  live,  would 
for  extra  you  expect  to  find  a  strange 
^°^  language    and    strange    cus- 

toms? Why?  3.  WTiat  other  coun- 
tries besides  Australia  are  especially 
noted  for  cattle  and  sheep?  4.  Read 
about  the  trouble  caused  by  rabbits 
that  were  imported  to  that  continent. 
5.  Find  out  about  some  of  the  peculiar  na- 
tive plants  and  animals.     6.    Find  what 


spices  are  used  in  cooking  at  your  home. 
7.  Find  out  about  the  eucah^ptus  tree, 
which  has  been  transplanted  to  Califor- 
nia. 8.  Write  the  life  history  of  the  rub- 
ber in  a  comb  or  an  eraser. 

L  Australia  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  what  part 
of  South  America?  2.  Of  Africa?  3.  What  unin- 
habited continent  ia  about  the  size  of 
Australia?  4.  Australia  is  opposite  ^*P  l"6s- 
what  part  of  the  world?  Answer  this  Australasia 
question  by  the  use  of  a  globe.  5. 
What  provinces  of  Australia  are  chiefly  lowlands? 
6.  Which  province  contains  many  large  lakes?  7. 
What  tropical  island  lies  north  of  Australia?  8. 
Compare  distance  between  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land with  that  between  New  York  and  Liveroool. 


3s 


Fig.  300 


PART  VII.     AFRICA 


Why  Africa  is 
called  the 
Dark  Conti- 
nent 


Probably  one  reason  why  Africa  is 
called  the  "dark  continent"  is  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  home  of  the  black 
man.  The  first  negro  slaves 
brought  to  North  America 
came  from  that  continent. 
Another  reason  is  that  until  recently 
we  have  known  little  about  it.  It  is  one 
of  the  oldest  continents  that  history  tells 
us  about,  and  it  lies  so  near  Europe  that 
the  two  almost  join  at  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar;  yet  it  is 
the  least  known  of  all  the 
larger  continents. 

There  are  several  reasons 
why  so  Uttle  has  been  known 
about  Africa. 
In  the  first  place, 
there  is  a  vast 
desert  south  of 
the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea  (Fig. 
302).  It  extends  east  and 
west  across  the  continent 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to 
the  Red  Sea;  and  from 
north  to  south  it  is  more 
than  1,000  miles  wide. 

This  vast  region,  most  of 
which  is  called  the  Sahara 
Desert  (Fig.  302),  is  very 
difficult  to  cross.    It  has  no 
roads  or  railways,  and  the  only  way  to 
travel  over  it  is  on  camels.     The  water- 
ing places,   or  oases,  are    usually   many 
miles  apart,  so  that  both  camels  and  men 


may  perish  from  thirst.  Frightful  sand- 
storms sometimes  arise,  continuing  for 
hours  and  even  days;  in  these  the  sand 
is  drifted  about  by  the  winds,  filling  the 
air  and  sometimes  even  burying  the  cara- 
vans. If  these  perils  are  escaped,  there 
is  still  the  danger  of  attack  from  the 
fierce  nomads  who  live  in  the  desert  and 
who  rob  the  caravans,  often  showing  no 
mercy  to  travelers. 


Why  so  little 
has  been 
known  about 
Africa 

1.  How  the 
desert  has 
checked  travel 


^a^' 


Fig.  301.— The  Great  Pyramid  and  the  Sphinx 

The  pyramids  were  built  thousands  of  years  ago  for  use  as  tombs  of  the 
royal  families  of  Egypt.  What  indications  do  you  see  that  this  is  a  desert 
region? 

It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  Eu- 
ropeans have  failed  to  become  well  ac- 
quainted with  Africa  by  entering  it  from 
the  north. 


291 


Fig.  302 


A. 


Bay  of  Bis 


[JO 


M  R./h    / 


Strait  of  (; 

...    JK- 


7V  CANARY 
/V"fSjHl».) 


Blanco 
202. 


■^  Tropic  of  Cancer 

S  A  I! 


Gabca 


A' 


U-  50 


f  V: 


1     A 


"%<*v" 


K 


EST  a'fRIC    A^gW 


C,Palma» 


GULF 


S? 


\ 

ERNAN. 

OF       CUINEi 


Equator 


KAMKRUN 


iV    r 


CairoT^uc 

;  E  G  Y  i?^T 


<<) 


■-/--[- 


^ 


f-  Khartum; 

'    ANGLO-EGYPT 


SUDA 


•x 


.  r 


'i  ..->*" 


.--<;:. 


t^ 


iKdls  Abeb  i 


V 

PHOT.         ^ 

KFNIA  COLON 

I   s 

yihortS  "v.  [ 

"T^  A  (a>»T     ,  -y^ 

TANOAnVjIvA         0EMBA   1. 

KMoKY        'Sp'ii  <-s  Salam 


"iHidlLA.  J^-jv,-,  ^-^^.^i 


~,      (/'or)«Bu/se)  ^ij 


AFRICA 

POLITICAL  MAP 

Scale  of  statute  milea 
EOO  1000 


»    '  t       \-,' NORTHERN     /     ><'  «K  '    i^'-^"-^,  .-  •'VWi 

%.  \  I   K  if  O.  |/>-f^-;|WomT^v^    -Mozambique       ^l* 

1       "^     SOUTH  wK"s;f~t   ^~^~      ;^,  - '  r     r~^ 


y^'<iiMtl  Banc's  ■■        '■""'•■"°''"'-'     -"     '' 


rliOTECTORATK      ,' 
.       Wirt  0/     I   K"'" 

-,     Un\on\of  \   D( 

^ hlohanncsbura.. 


rr      J"    ',  MAURITIUS  I 

X'p!/l  REUNION  ija 


•Tropic^  pf-        Capricorn 


Railroads 


Id  tJl<eratioD 


Caravan  routes 


iTupiTRlt 

Capitals  of  independent  countries  9 
Ci^pitals  of  foreign  possessions  3 


Cape  To,.aT 
C.  c/  Goo  J  Hose- 


urenco  Maraues 


-  Elizabeth 


5  E^GA*vts&  C9:,N 


20"      Longitude        10^ 


10'        Longitude         20 


40°       Gre^nu'icA     50° 


Fig.  303 


294 


AFRICA 


2.  Why  the  rivers 
have  not  favored 
exploration 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  304.  —  Along  the  Nile  River  in  Egypt 
Two  of  the  pjrramids  may  be  seen  in  the  distance.     The  palm  trees  indi- 
cate a  warm  climate.     The  camel  driver  is  waiting  for  tourists,  many  of 
whom  visit  Egypt. 

One  might  expect  the  large  rivers  to 

offer  a  good  means  of  reaching  the  inte- 
rior. Trace  the  Nile  in  Eg^^t 
(Fig.  302);  the  Niger  and 
Kongo  on  the  west  coast  of 

Africa;  and  the  Zambezi   in   the  south. 

Notice  how  far  these  rivers  extend  into 

the  continent.    If  they  could  be  navigated 

far  up  toward  their  sources,  as  our  Hud- 
son and  Mississippi  rivers  are,  they  would 

make  excellent  highways  to  the  interior; 

but  this  cannot  be  done,  for  all  of  them 

have    rapids    and    falls    in    their    lower 

courses. 

The  reason  for  these  falls  is  that  the 

interior  of  Africa,  like  that  of  both  Mexico 

and  Spain  (Figs.  58  and  247),  is  mainly  a 

plateau,  whose  elevation  is  from  a  quarter 

to  a  half  a  mile  above  the  level  of  the  sea 

(Fig.    302).      In    descending    from    this 

plateau,  the  rivers  tumble  in  cataracts 

and  falls. 


One  of  the  largest  water- 
falls is  Victoria  Falls  in  the 
upper  Zambezi  River  (Fig. 
302).  The  Nile  also  has 
several  rapids  and  cataracts ; 
and  there  is  a  great  cataract 
in  the  Kongo.  Thus  the 
rivers  have  been  of  little  use 
for  exploring  the  continent. 

A  third  reason  why  we 
know  so  little  about  Africa 

is    its    Unhealth-       3    ^hedanger 

f  U  1      climate.        o^  *e  climate 
.  to  foreigners 

Notice  where 
the  equator  crosses  the  con- 
tinent. From  this  you  see 
that  most  of  Africa  is  in  the 
tropical  zone,  and  that  only 
the  northern  and  southern 
parts  are  in  the  temperate 
zones.  Does  it  extend  into  the  frigid  zone? 


©Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  305. — Railway  bridge  over  the  Zambezi  River 
This  picture  reminds  one  of  the  Niagara  Falls. 


AFRICA 


295 


In  this  tropical  region  the 
low  coast  lands  have  too  hot 
and  damp  a  climate  for  white 
men.  There  is  much 
malaria,  as  well  as  other 
diseases  that  thrive  in  a  hot, 
damp  climate.  Generally, 
therefore,  Europeans  can 
live  with  comfort  and  safety 
only  upon  the  high  land  of 
the  interior.  This  fact  has 
helped  to  keep  foreigners 
out  of  Africa;  for  settle- 
ments in  new  countries  are 
usually  first  made  along  the 
coast.  In  Africa,  it  is  dan- 
gerous even  to  cross  the 
narrow  strip  of  coastland  to 
reach  the  highlands. 

A  part  of  central  Africa, 
where  the  rainfall  is  very   heavy   (Fig. 
307),  is  covered  with  a  dense  forest  like 
that  in  the  Amazon  Basin.     This  forest 


Fig.  307.  —  Annual  rainfall  in  Africa 


Fig.  306.  —  Interior  of  the  old  palace  of  the  rulers  of  Morocco 
This  reminds  one  strongly  of  the  interior   of  the  Alhambra  (Fig.  249) 
Both  were  occupied  by  the  Moors. 

extends  north  and  south  for  a  full  thou- 
sand miles,  and  is  very  difficult  to  cross. 
There  are  many  wild  animals  in  the 
forest  and  on  the  open  plains  to  the  north 
and  south  of  it.    Among  these       ^^    ^ 

,  .  4.  The  eflfect  of 

are  the  lion,  elephant,  rhinoc-   native  ufe  on 

1  .  ,  1        •       exploration 

eros,  hippopotamus,   and   gi- 
raffe, as  well  as  many  snakes.    Some  of 
these  animals,  like  the  lion,  are  very  fierce 
and  dangerous. 

Another  difficulty  comes  from  the  great 
numbers  of  savage  black  men,  or  negroes, 
many  of  whom  are  dangerous  to  meet. 
For  centuries  the  negroes  have  been 
seized  and  carried  away  as  slaves  to  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world.  Even  today  the 
Arabs  seize  many  of  them  for  that  pur- 
pose. Such  treatment  has  not  helped  to 
make  them  friendly  to  white  men. 

If  you  traveled  along  the  Mediterra- 
nean coast  from  Morocco  to  Tripoli  (Fig. 
303)  you  would  see   some  very  different 


WlM.Ei.g.Co.,N.Y. 


296 


AFRICA 


sights  from  those  in  the  European 
countries  on  the  Mediterranean.  These 
cities  have  a  strange  appear- 
^J^aby  ance  with  their  white,  flat- 
traveling  over-  topped  Moorish  buildings 
the'^Mediter-  (Fig  306)  and  the  domes  of 
ranean  coast     mosoues,   or   churches,    rising 

from  Morocco       ,  ^,  ^y.  ,  , 

to  Tripoli         above  them.    You  would  soon 

find,  however,   that  more  of 

them  are  poorly  built  and  that  there  is 

more  dirt  than  in  the  European  cities  on 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  308.  — The  temple  of  Karaak,  in  Egypt 
Modern  workmen  are  shown  here  repairing  this  very  ancient  temple  to 
keep  it  from  further  decay.    Note,  on  the  right,  carving  by  ancient  artists. 
The  signs  in  the  upper  right-hand  comer  are  ancient  Egyptian  writing. 


the  Mediterranean  coast.  In  the  bazaar 
or  market  place  you  would  meet  Moors, 
Arabs,  Berbers,  Hebrews,  negroes,  and 
some  Europeans.  Many  of  the  people 
are  poor  and  ignorant. 

Much  the  same  crops  are  raised  along 
this  coast  as  on  the  north  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean;  you  would  see  wheat, 
olives,  figs,  dates,  and  other  fruits.  But 
the  methods  of  farming  are  very  different, 


having  scarcely  improved  in  the  last 
2,000  years.  In  the  interior,  on  the  south- 
ern slopes  of  the  Atlas  Mountains,  the 
country  becomes  drier,  and  herding  is  the 
chief  occupation.  On  the  southern  bor- 
der of  these  countries  is  the  Sahara. 
There,  in  some  of  the  towns,  you  would 
see  caravans  starting  for  oases  far  out  in 
the  desert. 

These  people  are  so  backward  partly 
because  their  Mohammedan  religion 
teaches  that  everything 
should  be  done  as  their 
fathers  did  it  before  them. 
Hence  they  have  opposed 
changes.  For  a  long  time 
it  was  even  dangerous  for 
foreigners  to  travel  here. 
Within  recent  years,  how- 
ever, France  and  Italy  have 
taken  control  of  these  coun- 
tries, and  they  are  gradu- 
ally improving  conditions. 
At  Algiers  (Fig.  247),  the 
most  important  seaport  on 
this  coast,  the  French  have 
built  an  entirely  modern 
city  along  the  harbor  below 
the  old  Moorish  town.  As 
shown  by  Fig.  303,  which  of 
these  countries  belong  to 
France?  To  Italy?  To 
Spain?  Are  they  important  as  colonies? 
More  tourists  visit  Egypt  than  any 
other  part  of  Africa,  for  it  is  one  of  the 
oldest  and  most  interesting  why  a  trip  up 
countries  of  the  world.  Civi- 
lized people  lived  there  thou- 

1         »  1      /•  ii        i  •  !•  Interesting 

sands  oi  years  before  the  time  sights  one 
of  Christ  (Fig.  308).  This  is  '^''^'^''^ 
the   countrv,   the  Bible   tells   us,  where 


the  Nile  is 
popular 


country,   ttie  JbSibie   teiis   us, 
Moses  once  lived,  and  Joseph  also. 


What 


AP^RICA 


297 


stories  from  the  Bible  do  you  remember 
about  their  stay  in  Egypt? 

Travelers  usually  land  at  Alexandria, 
the  chief  seaport  of  the  country.  In  Fig. 
303  note  its  location  in  the  delta  of  the 
Nile  River.  Traveling  inland  across  this 
delta,  you  would  see  a  great  deal  of  farm- 
ing country.  When  Joseph  lived  there, 
Egypt  was  a  store-house  for  grains;  and 
wheat,  corn,  and  millet  are  still  exten- 
sively raised  (Fig.  309).  The  climate  is 
so  warm  that  crops  like 
those  of  our  Southern 
States  can  be  produced, 
and  you  would  see  much 
rice,  sugar  cane,  and  espe- 
cially cotton.  There  are 
many  vineyards,  and  groves 
of  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  and 
dates.  Grazing  is  also  im- 
portant, herds  of  water- 
buffalo  and  camels,  as  well 
as  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats, 
being  common. 

At  the  head  of  the  delta 
is   Cairo   (Fig.    303),    the 
capital   of  Egypt  and  the 
largest  city  in  Africa.  There 
you  would  see  the  palace  of 
the  Sultan,  several  mosques, 
and  a  museum   containing 
many    Egyptian    works   of 
art.     Perhaps  nowhere  else  in  the  world 
would  you  find  so  many  races  or  hear  so 
many  strange  languages.   Three  Sabbaths 
are  observed  each  week  by  these  different 
religions:  Friday  by  the  Mohammedans, 
Saturday  by  the  Jews,  and  Sunday  by  the 
Christians. 

Probably  you  would  most  enjoy  taking 
a  camel  ride  south  of  Cairo  to  visit  some 
of  the  most  interesting  ruins  of  ancient 


Egypt.  Here  are  the  immense  pyramids 
and  the  Sphinx,  with  the  head  of  a  woman 
and  the  body  of  a  lion  (Fig.  301).  With 
much  effort  you  can  climb  step  by  step 
up  the  great  stone  blocks  of  which  the 
pyramids  are  built.  These  are  the  tombs 
of  ancient  kings;  in  them  have  been 
found  the  bodies  of  the  dead  rulers,  pre- 
served in  a  peculiar  way.  A  number  of 
these  mummies  have  been  brought  to 
museums  in    some  of   our   large    cities, 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service 

Fig.  309.  —  Grain  boats  on  the  Nile,  near  Cairo 

There  is  much  traffic  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  Nile.  How  far  from 
the  mouth  are  the  first  rapids  (Fig.  302)?  How  many  rapids  are  there?  The 
camels  have  come  from  an  oasis  in  the  desert  with  dates  to  be  exchanged 
for  some  of  the  grain  that  is  grown  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

where  they  may  be  seen  by  anyone. 

This  rich  farming  country  Ues  in  the 
midst  of  the  desert  and  receives  rain  only 
four  or  five  times  in  a  year. 
The  fact  that  it  is,  neverthe-  ti'ono/thedM-' 
less,  so  productive  is  due  to  e^isprosper- 
the  Nile  River;  indeed  with- 
out the  Nile  Egypt  itself  would  be  a  des- 
ert Uke  the  country  which  surrounds  it. 
Trace  the  course  of  the  Nile  in  Fig.  302. 


298 


AFRICA 


Its  source  lies  near  the  equator  in  a  region 
of  such  heavy  rainfall  that  every  year 
floods  cause  the  river  to  overflow  its 
banks.  The  water,  carrying  a  large  quan- 
tity of  sediment,  has  built  up  the  fertile 
flood  plains  on  either  side  of  the  river  and 


Fig.  310.  —  Standard  Bank  of  South  Africa,  Cape  Town 

also  the  broad  delta  at  its  mouth.  The 
annual  floods  spread  over  these  plains, 
each  overflow  leaving  a  layer  of  rich  mud, 
and  at  the  same  time  providing  the  water 
necessary  for  crops.  In  this  way,  for 
thousands  of  years,  millions  of  people 
have  been  supported  in  the  midst  of  the 
desert. 

At  the  opposite  end  of  the  continent 
from  Egypt  lies  an  even  more  prosperous 
region.  This  is  the  Union  of 
South  Africa,  which  would 
probably  seem  less  strange  to 
you  than  any  other  part  of 
Africa  you  might  visit.  It  is  a  part  of  the 
British  Empire,  and  large  numbers  of 
Europeans,  principally  English  and  Dutch, 
live  there.  The  cities  are  in  most  ways 
as  modern  as  our  own.  You  might  be 
surprised  to  find  that  in  Cape  Town,  at 
the  southernmost  tip  of  Africa,  there  are 
electric  lights,  street-cars,  fine  buildings 


Why  South 
Africa  is  so 
attractive  to 
Buropeans 


(Fig.  310),  and  many  of  the  other  con- 
veniences common  in  our  cities. 

One  of  the  reasons  why  so  many  Eu- 
ropeans live  there  is  that  the  climate  is 
suitable  for  the  white  man.  What  does 
the  latitude  tell  you  about  the  climate? 
Compare  it  with  that  of  Egypt. 

This  is  a  rich  farming  country.  Be- 
sides fields  of  grain,  you  would  see  many 
fruit  orchards.     A  peculiar  industry  there 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  311. — A  Soutli  African  gold  mine 
Johannesburg  is  in  the  heart  of  the  richest  gold-pro- 
ducing region  in  the  world.  Gold-bearing  rock  is  brought 
to  the  surface  and  crushed  to  secure  the  gold.  A  great 
hill  of  the  crushed  rock  may  be  seen  on  the  right  in  the 
background. 

is  the  raising  of  ostriches;  you  would  en- 
joy visiting  a  farm  where  these  largest  of 
birds  are  raised  in  great  numbers  for  the 
valuable  feathers  on  their  wings  and  tails. 
How  have  you  seen  ostrich  feathers  used? 


AFRICA 


299 


Another  reason  why  South  Africa  has 
attracted  so  many  Europeans  is  its  great 
mineral  wealth.  Johannesburg  is  the 
center  of  the  gold  mining  (Fig.  311).  The 
district  near  it  produces  more  than  a  third 
of  the  gold  of  the  world  and  nearly  twice 
the  amount  produced  by  the  United 
States.  At  Kimberley  (Fig.  303)  is  one 
of  the  greatest  diamond  mines  in  the 
world.  There  you  would  see  native  work- 
ers digging  out  the  decayed  rock  from 
old  volcanoes  and  washing  it  to  find  the 
precious  stones. 

In  the  past  travelers  in  northern  Africa 
seldom  ventured  into  the  interior,  because 

almost  the  only 

way  of   getting 

there  was   b}^ 

the  long   and 

difficult  caravan 

route  across  the 

Sahara.  Dur- 
ing the  last  fifty  years,  since 
European  nations  have 
taken  control  of  a  large  part 
of  Africa,  there  has  been 
greater  need  than  ever  be- 
fore for  a  railroad  to  make 
travel  possible  through  the 
interior  and  to  carry  prod- 
ucts from  central  Africa  to 
seaports  in  the  north  and 
south.  One  of  the  great 
plans  for  developing  the 
continent  is  the  Cape-to- 
Cairo  Railroad  (Fig.  312), 
which  will  make  it  possible  to  travel 
overland  from  one  end  of  the  continent 
all  the  way  to  the  other.  In  Fig.  303 
trace  this  route  from  Cairo  in  Egj^t  to 
Cape  Town  in  southern  Africa.  Estimate 
the  distance.     Note  also  that  the  greater 


part  of  the  lines  has  already  been  com- 
pleted by  the  British,  through  Egypt, 
which  they  partly  control,  and  through 
their  colonies  of  South  Africa.  What 
portion  remains  to  be  built?  The  great- 
ness of  the  undertaking  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  completed  line  will  be  about 
twdce  as  long  as  one  of  our  transconti- 
nental lines  from  New  York  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  it  is  estimated  that  it  will  take 
about  ten  days  to  travel  from  one  end 
to  the  other.  How  long  does  it  take  to 
cross  our  continent? 

If  you  were  to  make  the  trip  by  this 
route  when  it  is  completed,  you  would 


The  plan  of 
the  Cape-to- 
Cairo  Rail- 
road 

1.  Why  such  a 
railroad  has 
long  been 
desired 


This  is  where 
with  Fig.  305. 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  312.— The  Cape-to-Cairo  Railway 

the  line  crosses  the  Zambezi  River.    Compare  this  picture 


leave  the  desert  at  some  distance  south 

of  Egypt  and  pass  into  the  grasslands  of 

the  Sudan.    In  Fig.  303  trace 

the    extent    of     the    Sudan. 

There  rain  falls  during    one 

season  of  the  year,  while  the  other  season 


2.  What  one 
might  see  on 
this  route 


300 


AFRICA 


is  dry.  This  prevents  the  growth  of  trees 
except  along  the  rivers,  for  they  cannot 
live  through  the  dry  season.  Grass,  how- 
ever, grows  luxuriantly,  and  herding  is  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  negro  inhabitants. 
Do  you  imagine  these  herders  have  as 
pleasant  a  life  as  the  herders  in  Switzer- 
land (p.  223)?  Give  the  reason  for  your 
answer. 


©  Underwood  and  Underwood 

Fig.  313.  —  A  view  of  Zanzibar 

Zanzibar  is  on  an  island  of  the  same  name  and  is  one 
of  the  principal  seaports  of  the  eastern  coast. 

South  of  the  Sudan  the  train  would 
climb  up  into  the  forest-covered  high- 
lands. Although  you  would  be  travehng 
through  the  tropics,  the  altitude  is  so  high 
that  the  temperature  is  very  comfortable, 
and  you  would  see  mountain  peaks  cov- 
ered with  snow. 

As  you  crossed  the  plateau  of  Rhodesia, 
you  would  pass  through  grasslands  much 
like  those  of  the  Sudan.  There  the  cool, 
dry  season  is  followed  by  a  warm,  rainy 
season  like  our  spring.     This  climate  is 


very  comfortable  for  the  white  man  to 
live  in,  and  many  Dutch  and  English 
have  settled  here.  Ranching  is  the  prin- 
cipal occupation;  there  are  large  herds 
of  cattle  and  sheep. 

In  southern  Rhodesia  you  would  cross 
the  Zambezi  River  near  Victoria  Falls. 
This  wonderful  waterfall  is  even  larger 
than  Niagara,  and  is  one  of  the  grandest 
in  the  world. 

Coming  down  from  the  highlands  you 
would   pass  into    South   Africa.      From 
what  has  been  said,  what 
would  you  be  likely  to  see  on    ^°^e*Kongo 
the  remainder  of  the  trip?     In    would  differ 
Fig.  302  trace  the  course  of    the^Amazon 
the  Kongo  River,   the  chief 
highway  of  central  Africa.     Where  does 
the  equator  cross  it?     How  does  its  lati- 
tude compare  with  that  of   the  Amazon 
(Fig.  174)?     How  does  its  length  compare 
with  that  of  the  Amazon?     The  number 
of  tributaries? 

From  these  facts  you  might  expect  a 
trip  up  the  Kongo  to  be  much  like  one  up 
the  Amazon.  Recall  some  of  the  experi- 
ences of  the  latter  trip  (p.  190).  In 
traveling  up  the  Kongo,  however,  you 
would  be  reminded  of  the  Amazon  only  in 
the  lower  portion,  where  the  Kongo  passes 
through  the  hot,  damp  coastal  plain.  A 
little  over  100  miles  inland  numerous  falls 
in  the  river  lead  up  to  Leopold ville.  From 
there  on,  traveling  would  be  more  com- 
fortable; for  on  the  plateau  the  tempera- 
ture is  lower  and  the  rainfall  less.  Al- 
though falls  frequently  obstruct  naviga- 
tion, railroads  have  been  built  around 
many  of  them,  and  you  could  travel  easily 
either  by  water  or  rail  over  most  of  the 
basin  of  the  Kongo  and  its  tributaries. 

Much  of  the  time  the  way  leads  through 


AFRICA 


301 


forests,  but  the  lighter  rainfall  on  the 
plateau  makes  them  less  dense  than  the 
Amazon  jungle;  and  frequently  you  would 
see  areas  of  savannahs,  or  grasslands.  The 
products  of  the  Kongo  are,  therefore, 
more  easily  obtained  than  those  of  the 
Amazon,  although  they  are  practically 
the  same.  Recall  the  important  products 
of  the  Amazon  Basin.  In  addition,  ivory, 
from  the  tusks  of  the  elephant,  is  of  great 
importance  in  the  Kongo. 
The  Kongo  has  a  greater 
variety  of  animal  life;  the 
buffalo,  elephant,  and  leop- 
ard live  on  the  plains;  and 
the  roar  of  the  Hon  is  fre- 
quently heard. 

Although  the  tropical 
plateau  of  the  Kongo  is  too 
unhealthful  for  the  white 
man,  the    natives    prosper 
there.      Along   the   river 
banks  you  would  see  many 
native   villages,  with  their 
clusters   of   huts    made    of 
straw  or  some  similar  ma- 
terial.    Since  land  is  easier 
to  clear  here  than  in  the  Amazon  Basin, 
the  villages  are  surrounded  by  gardens 
and  fields  where   potatoes,   corn,   sugar 
cane,  cotton,  and  rice  are  grown.    Only  a 
small  portion  of  the  land  is   tilled   at 
present,  but  nearly  the  entire  basin,  an 
area  about  equal  to  a  third  of  the  United 
States,  could  be  cultivated.     How  does 
it    compare    in    this    respect    with    the 
Amazon  Basin? 


is  the  climate  of  large  parts  of  Africa  un- 
healthful? 5.  How  have  the  natives 
hindered  exploration?  6.  De-  Review 
scribe  some  of  the  sights  to  be  questions 
seen  in  northwestern  Africa.  7.  Why 
does  the  prosperity  of  Egypt  depend 
upon  the  Nile?  8.  In  what  ways  does 
South  Africa  remind  one  of  our  own 
country?  9.  What  are  some  of  its  chief 
products?     10.  Why  is  a  Cape-to-Cairo 


Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 


1.  Why  has  Africa  been  called  the 
Dark  Continent?  2.  How  has  the  desert 
made  travel  difficult?  3.  Why  has  naviga- 
tion on  the  rivers  been  difficult?    4.  Why 


Fig.  314.  —  Half-civilized  negroes  in  the  Belgian  Kongo 

railroad  needed?  11.  Describe  some  of 
the  scenes  along  this  route.  12.  Com- 
pare the  Kongo  and  the  Amazon  basins. 
1.  How  do  you  explain  the  fact  that 
the  Egyptians  have  made  such  greater 
advances     than     the     other      ^ 

Suggestions 

peoples  of  northern  Africa?  for  extra 
2.  Why  should  Cairo  be  the  ""^'^ 
largest  city  in  the  continent?  3.  Read 
the  story  of  Joseph  in  the  Bible  beginning 
in  Genesis,  Chapter  37.  4.  Read  about 
the  Dutch  settlements  in  South  Africa. 
5.  Write  an  account  of  a  visit  to  an 
oasis  in  the  Sahara.  6.  Make  a  col- 
lection of  pictures  of  scenes  in  Egypt. 


302 


AFRICA 


7.  To  what  European  countries  do  the 
different  countries  of  Africa  belong?  8. 
Find  out  some  interesting  facts  about  the 
diamond  mines  at  Kimberley. 

1.  Show  that  Africa  has  a  more  regular  coast 
line  than  any  other  continent.  2.  What  two  seas 
lie  along  the  northern  and  northeastern  coasts 
of  Africa?  3.  What  large  island  lies  east  of 
Africa?     Compare  its  area  with  that  of  one  of 


our  states.    4.  What  countries  of  Africa  consist 

chiefly  of  highlands?    5.  Of  lowlands?     6.  Trace 

the  courses  of  all  rivers  mentioned 

in  the  text.    7.  Compare  the  area 

of  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza  with  that 

of  Lake  Michigan.    8.  Compare  the 

area   of   the  Belgian    Kongo  with  that   of    the 

United   States.    9.  The    northernmost   cities   of 

Africa  are  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  what 

city  in  the  United  States? 


Map 

questions 
on  Africa 


PART  VIII. 


THE    UNITED    STATES    IN    RELATION 
TO    OTHER   COUNTRIES 


There  are  more  than  twenty  separate 
countries  in  North  and  South  America, 
T>    1    **u       of  which  Canada  and  Brazil 

Rank  of  the 

United  States  are  the  largest  in- area.  All  of 
World  ^and  them  together,  however,  have 
some  of  the  a  Smaller  population  than  the 
United  States  alone.  From 
figures  in  the  Appendix,  find  out  how 
much  smaller  it  is  (pp.  310  and  311). 

Our  products  from  farms,  mines,  and 
factories  far  surpass  such  products  from 
all  these  other  countries  together,  and  we 
have  fully  twice  as  many  miles  of  railroad 
as  they  have.  The  United  States  is, 
therefore,  by  far  the  leading  country  in 
the  New  World. 

There  are  many  reasons  for  this  rank, 
but  only  two  of  them  can  be  mentioned 
here.  They  are  the  chmate  and  the  char- 
acter of  our  people.  Can  you  show  how 
we  have  a  great  advantage  over  most  of 
the  others  in  climate?  WTiat  countries  of 
South  America  are  most  Hke  the  United 
States  in  that  respect?  Has  Canada  the 
advantage  over  our  country  in  climate? 
Has  Mexico? 

Climate  has  a  great  influence  on  the 
character  of  people.  Can  you  show  how 
that  is  true  in  the  New  World?  What 
two  countries  in  North  America  have  the 
most  intelhgent  and  energetic  inhabitants? 
What  proofs  can  you  give  of  that  fact? 
What  can  you  tell  about  the  education  of 
the  people  in  South  America  (p.  178)? 


Although  the  United  States  is  much 
greater  in  population  than  the  other  na- 
tions of  the  New  World,  it  is 
by  no  means  independent  of  Ourdepend- 

*^  ^  .      ence  upon 

them.  Its  trade  with  them  is  other  coun- 
one  of  the  things  that  makes  ^e^wOTid 
it  great. 

The  New  World  country  on  from  c^Ida  "^ 
which  its  prosperity  most  de-  seu  tohw''^ 
pends  is  Canada.  When  you 
consider  the  population  of  Canada,  is 
this  surprising  or  not?  The  fact  is  that 
our  trade  with  this  neighbor  is  greater 
than  that  with  all  Latin  America,  which 
includes  all  the  countries  in  North  and 
South  America  from  United  States  south- 
ward. 

When  you  recall  what  Canada  pro- 
duces, you  can  suggest  some  of  the  things 
that  we  buy  from  her.  Wheat,  flour,  oats, 
bacon,  and  cheese  are  her  most  important 
agricultural  products;  but  the  British  Isles 
take  far  more  of  such  things  than  we  do. 
Can  you  tell  why  (p.  207)?  We  do,  how- 
ever, take  some  of  them,  and  we  buy 
great  quantities  of  wood,  wood  pulp,  and 
paper. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  sell  to  Canada 
far  more  goods  than  we  buy,  in  some  years 
twice  as  many.  The  most  important 
articles  are  iron  and  steel  goods,  coal,  and 
woolen  and  cotton  textiles.  Can  you  ex- 
plain why  Canada  chooses  these  things 
especially  (p.  159)?    The  principal  port 


303 


Fig.  315 


60''         Greenwich         80 


Fig.  315 


306 


THE  UNITED  STATES  IN   RELATION   TO  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


for.  foreign  trade  in  Canada  is  Montreal, 
and  the  one  next  in  rank  is  Toronto. 
Show  how  the  location  of  each  gives  it 
advantages  for  foreign  trade. 


From  The  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture  (1814) 

Fig.  316 

So  much  of  the  land  south  of  us  Ues  in 
the  tropical  zone  that  many  of  the  prod- 
2.  Our  trade  ^^^^  are  different  from  any 
with  Latin         that  we  can  raise.     Note  the 

Amenca 

boundaries  of  that  zone  as 
shown  in  Fig.  46.  What  are  the  names 
of  the  boundary  lines  of  this  zone? 

We  want  many  of  these 
tropical  articles  very  much. 
For  example,  our  breakfast 
tables  call  for  coffee,  sugar, 
and  bananas.  Can  you 
point  out  on  Fig.  315  some 
of  the  countries  from  which 
these  common  articles  may 
be  obtained?  Some  of 
our  rubber  comes  from 
South  America  and  much  of 
our  binding  twine  from 
tropical  North  America. 
Can  you  name  the  countries  that  are  noted 
for  these  (pp.  147  and  165)?  In  return 
for  such  purchases,  we  sell  to  these  hot 
countries  such   manufactures   as  cotton 


you  expect  us  to  sell  them  many  woolen 
goods?    Why? 

The  countries  in  South  America  with 
which  we  trade  most  He  mainly  in  the 
temperate  zone.  Name  those 
referred  to.    While  we  raise 
a  large  quantity  of  wool,  we 
import  more  than  one  half 
of  what  we  consume;  and 
much    of   it   comes    from 
Argentina    and    Chile.   We 
also  obtain  a  great  number 
of  hides  there,  and  a  large 
amount    of   fertilizer    from 
one  of  them.     On  the  other 
hand,  we  sell  to  them  farm 
implements,    cotton  goods, 
and  other  manufactures.      What  condi- 
tions in  those  countries  favor  the  export 
and  import  of  such  articles?    What  cities 
are  their  principal  ports  for  foreign  trade? 
What  reasons  can  you  give  for  the  fact 
that  our  trade  with  all  South  America  is 
smaller  than  that  with  Canada? 


goods,  machinery,  and  foodstuffs.    Would 


From  The  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture  (.1914) 

Fig.  317 

The  country  to  the  south  of  us  with 
which  we  have  most  trade  is  Cuba.  About 
eighty  pounds  of  sugar  per  person  are 
consumed  each  year  in  the  United  States, 
only  about  half  of  which  is  produced  by 


THE  UNITED   STATES   IN   RELATION   TO   OTHER   COUNTRIES 


307 


US  and  our  possessions.  A 
larger  amount  is  imported 
from  Cuba  than  from  any 
other  country.  What  other 
important  products  are  im- 
ported from  that  island  (p. 
169)?  In  1918  our  com- 
merce with  Cuba  was  double 
that  with  Mexico.  How  can 
you  explain  that  fact?  What 
is  the  principal  port  of 
Cuba? 

The  area  and  population 
of  Africa  suggest  that  our 
„         ^    ,    trade   might   be 

How  our  trade  ° 

with  Africa  much  greater 
coltr/wi?h  with    that    con- 

compares  with 

that  with         tinent  than  with 

South  America   a       ^i,       a 

South  America. 
Show  that  that  suggestion 
is  true. 

The  parts  of  Africa  with 
which  we  have  most  trade 
are  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  and  Egypt.  How 
does  their  latitude  suggest 
an  important  advantage  for 
them  (Fig.  315)?  Which  of 
the  products  of  South  Africa 
would  you  expect  us  to  im- 
port (p.  298)?  Through 
what  port  would  they  be 
shipped?  Why  would  you 
not  expect  wheat  to  be  sent 
from  Egypt  to  us?  It  is 
different,  however,  with  cot- 
ton. While  we  raise  more 
of  that  fiber  than  any  other 
country,  the  Egyptian  cotton  is  an  espe- 
cially valuable  kind,  and  we  import  a 
large  amount  of  it  every  year.  What 
other  products  of  Egypt  would  you  ex- 


From  The  Geoyraphy  of  the  World's  Agriculture  {191 4) 

Fig.  318 


From  The  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture  (1914) 

Fig.  319 


From  The  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture  (1914) 

Fig.  320 

pect  US  to  import?    Through  what  port 
of  that  country? 

Compare  Australia  with  Africa  in  area 
and  population.     Australia  has  two  prod- 


308 


THE  UNITED  STATES   IN    RELATION  TO  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


1^ p^;^-^ ^ 

4 

Ig 

A^VvV^,^,- 

^ 

Kv^^  V 

^ 

xT^ 

_ 

^s 

^^^ 

i^^Jw      1 

^r}-'*a<. 

^w 

ti^                              WORLD 

,.„     '   ^  ' 

a-  V 

CATTLE 

U- 

NUMBER 
CACH  DOT  REPRESENT* 

Fig.  321 


Fig.  322 


Our  trade 
with  Asia  and 
the  islands 
near  it 


Fig.  323 


ucts  that  we  greatly  need  for  clothing. 
Can  you  name  them  (p.  285)?  From 
what  ports  would  you  expect  them  to 
be  shipped?    The  commerce  of  Australia 


with  the  United  States  is 
nearly  as  great  as  that 
of  Africa;  but  the  two  to- 
gether had  only  about  one 
fourth  as  much  trade  with 
the  United  States  in  1918 
as  South  America  alone. 
Why  would  you  expect 
largely  the  same  kinds  of 
goods  to  be  exported  by  the 
United  States  to  those  two 
continents  as  to  South 
America?  Mention  some  of 
the  more  important  articles. 
The  most  common  arti- 
cles that  reach  us  from 
Asia  and  the 
islands  near  it 
are  tea  and  cof- 
fee, spices,  silk, 
rice,  and  rubber.  Mention 
some  of  those  that  come 
from  the  Philippines  (p. 
147). 

The  country  of  Asia  with 
which  we  have  most  trade 
is  Japan.  The  greater  part 
of  the  tea  produced  in  the 
island  of  Formosa  is  sent  to 
us.  Can  you  name  other 
Japanese  articles  that  you 
have  seen?  Japan  sells  more 
of  her  products  to  us  than  to 
any  other  country,  although 
she  buys  more  from  some  of 
the  others.  Name  two 
Japanese  ports  from  which 
goods  would  be  likely  to  be 
shipped.  In  what  American  ports  would 
you  expect  such  goods  to  arrive? 

The  trade  of  China  with  us  is  only  a 
small  part  of  that  of  Japan  with  us.    Can 


THE  UNITED  STATES  IN   RELATION  TO   OTHER   COUNTRIES 


309 


you  suggest  any  reasons  for  this?  How 
do  the  two  countries  compare  in  area  and 
population? 

India  ranks  next  to  Japan  in  trade  with 
the  United  States.  From  the  Hst  of  In- 
dian products  named  on  p.  267,  which 
would  you  expect  to  be  sent  to  us  in  con- 
siderable quantities? 

Although  we  have  more  commerce  with 
Asia  than  with  South  America,  or  with 
Africa  and  Australia,  it  only  about 
equals  that  with  Canada.  What  reasons, 
if  any,  do  you  see  for  surprise  in  that  fact? 
What  are  some  of  the  conditions  that 
hinder  our  trade  with  Asia? 

Our  commerce  with  the  countries  of 
Europe  is  about  equal  to  that  with  all  the 
Our  trade  Other  countries  in  the  world, 
with  Europe  There  are  two  reasons  for  this. 
Because  the  Europeans  manufacture 
far  more  kinds  of  articles  than  other 
peoples,  they  have  far  more  things  that 
we  want.  For  example,  we  get  linen 
mainly  from  them;  laces  as  well;  much  of 
our  cloth;  some  of  our  watches  and  clocks; 
many  of  our  drugs;  also,,  raw  silk,  china- 
ware,  hardware,  works  of  art,  toys,  and 
hundreds  of  other  articles.  See  how  long 
a  list  of  things  you  can  make  that  we  im- 
port from  Europe. 

On  the  other  hand,  on  account  of  their 
dense  population  they  welcome  great 
quantities  of  food  from   us.     Can  you 


name  one  country  in  particular  that 
must  import  much  food  (p.  207)?  Also, 
their  extensive  manufacturing  calls  for 
many  of  our  raw  materials.  We  send 
them  nearly  one  fourth  of  all  the  wheat 
that  we  raise,  a  large  amount  of  meat, 
and  a  vast  quantity  of  cotton.  We 
could  spare  much  corn,  too;  but  they 
do  not  want  that.  They  have  never 
learned  to  eat  corn,  just  as  we  have  not 
learned  to  use  rice  to  the  extent  that  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  do.  Although  corn 
is  our  most  valuable  crop,  we  usually 
export  less  than  two  bushels  out  of  every 
hundred. 

The  European  country  with  which  we 
have  most  extensive  dealings  is  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.    France  comes  next.         routes  for 

In  Fig.  315  you  can  see  ^adeand 
the  principal  routes  that  goods 
and  people  take  across  the  oceans.  What 
course  would  freight  bound  from  Chi- 
cago to  Yokohama  be  likely  to  take? 
From  New  York  to  Yokohama?  From 
our  Southern  States  to  India?  By  what 
course  would  you  expect  sugar  from 
Manila  or  rice  from  China  to  reach  Chi- 
cago? What  are  the  leading  ports  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  On 
the  east  side?  On  the  shores  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean?  On  the  east  coast  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean?    On  its  west  coast? 


APPENDIX 

TABLES  OF  AREA,  POPULATION,  ETC. 


THE  EARTH 


Land  area  (square  miles) 56,255,000 

Water  area  (square  miles) 140,205,000 


Length  of  Axis  (miles) 7,900 

Length  of  the  equator  (miles) 24,900 


CONTINENTS  AND  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES 


Area  in 
Square  Miles 

North  America 9,455,700 

Alaska 590,900 

Canada 3.769,400 

Alberta 255,300 

British  Columbia  395,600 

Manitoba 251,800 

New  Brunswick.  28,000 

Nova  Scotia 21,400 

Ontario 407,300 

Prince      Edward 

Island 2,200 

Quebec 706,800 

Saskatchewan...  251,700 
Yukon  Territory  207,100 
Northwest     Ter- 
ritories   1,242,200 

Central  America. . .  219,500 

British  Honduras  8,600 

Costa  Rica 23,000 

Guatemala 48,300 

Honduras 44,300 

Nicaragua 49,200 

Panama     (exclu- 
sive   of    Canal 

Zone) 32,400 

Panama      Canal 

Zone 500 

Salvador 13,200 

Greenland 827,3(K) 

Labrador 120,000 

Mexico 767,200 

Newfoundland ....  42,700 

United  States 3.027,000 

West  Indies 91,800 

Bahama  Islands.  4,400 

Cuba 44,200 

Dominican     Re- 
public   19,300 

Haiti 10,200 

Jamaica 4.400 

Lesser  Antilles .  .  5,600 

South  America ....  7,222,000 

Argentina 1,153,000 

Bolivia 514,000 

BrazU 3,276,000 

British  Guiana 89,500 

Chile 290,000 

Colombia 441,000 

Dutch  Guiana 46,000 

E(Tuador 116,000 

French  Guiana 32,000 

Paraguay 65,000 

Peru 722,000 

Uruguay 72,000 

Venezuela 399,000 


Population 
143.000,000 

55,000 
8,428,000 
407,000 
400,000 
554,000 
352,000 
492,000 
2,799,000 

94,000 

2,380,000 

833,000 

9,000 

18,000 

5,516,000 

42,000 

4.59,000 

2,004,000 
606,000 
746,000 


337,000 

23,000 

1,299,000 

13,000 

4,000 

15,116,000 

255,000 

105,709,000 

9,974,000 

00,000 

2,899,000 

955,000 
2,,')(K),000 

891,000 
1,343,000 

62,630,000 

8,279,000 

2,890,000 

30,492,000 

311,000 

3,946,000 

5,420,000 

108,000 

2,000,000 

26,000 

1,000,000 

4,500,000 

1,4.30,000 

2,225,000 


.\rea  in 
Square  Miles 
Europe 3,900,000 


11,000 

32,100 

11,800 

121,700 

88,800 

50,900 

7,.500 

30,400 

32,600 

42,000 

56,300 

17,100 

23.200 

126,000 

212,700 

171,900 

56,000 

.36,600 

110,600 

25,000 

117,200 

13,200 

125,000 

141,900 

35,500 

122,300 

1,371,200 

194,800 

173,000 

16,000 

2,200 

498,100 

Asia 17,000,000 


Albania 

Austria 

Belgium 

British  Ls'es 

.  Great  Britain.  .  . 

England 

Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Bulgaria 

Czecho-Slovakia. .  . 

Denmark 

Esthonia 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece  (total) 

Hungary 

Italy 

J^atvia 

Jugo-.Slavia 

Netherlands,  The. . 

Norway 

Poland 

Portugal 

Rumania 

Russi.i  in  Europe. . 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey  in  Europe. 
Ukraine 


Afghanistan 

Arabian  Peninsula. 

Armenia 

Ceylon 

Chinese  Republic  . 
Dutch  East  Indies. 

Indian  Empire 

.Japanese  Empire .  . 
Malay  Peninsula. . . 

Mesopotamia 

Palestine 

Persia 

Siberia 

Syria 

Turkestan  (  R  u  s  - 

sian) 

Turkey  in  Asia. .  .  . 

Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Larjier 
Islands  of  the  Pacific 


245,000 

986,000 

75,600 

25,500 

4,277,100 

963.900 

1,802,600 

260,700 

503,600 

143,300 

9,000 

628,000 

4,831,900 

106,700 


Population 
455,000,000 

825,000 

6,412,000 

7,762,000 

45,475,000 

40,936,000 

34,015,000 

2,025,000 

4,866,000 

4,390.000 

4,500,000 

13,500,000 

3,171,000 

1,750,000 

3,277,000 

41,476,000 

55,086,000 

5,500,000 

8,800,000 

36,120,000 

1,250,000 

14,798,000 

6,779,000 

2,632,000 

30,072,000 

5,958,000 

17,393,000 

85,420,000 

20,720,000 

5,814,000 

3,937,000 

1,281,000 

46,000,000 

885,000,000 

6,381 ,000 

4,850,000 

4,028,000 

4,686,000 

327,910,000 

48,040,000 

315,1.56,000 

77,005,000 

28,967,000 

2,849,000 

648,000 

9,500,000 

10.378,000 

3,134,000 


420,800       6,684,000 
97,800       3,719,000 


Australia,  1919 

New  Zealand.  . 


2,975,000 

105,000 


5,141,000 

1,139,000 


Area  in 
Square  Miles     Population 


Belf/inn    Sphere    af 

'       ' 

Influence 

Belgian  Kongo. . 

929,000 

15,500,000 

British     Sphere     of 

Influence 

Sudan 

1,014,000 

3.400,000 

British  East  Africa. 

723,.300 

13,837,000 

Egypt 

350,000 

12,751,000 

Kamerun     (Brit- 

i  s  h         and 

French) 

191,100 

2,540,000 

Rhodesia 

440,000 

1,699,000 

Union    of    South 

Africia 

473,200 

5,973,000 

British  West  Af- 

rica  

447,500 

19,862,000 

French     Sphere 
Influence 


of 


Algeria 

French     Eciuato- 
ria!  Africa. .  . . 
French  West  Af- 
rica and  Saha- 
ra       2,807,000 

Madagascar ....         228,000 

Morocco 221,000 

Tunis 50,000 


222,200       5,564,000 
672,000       9,000,000 


12,720,000 
3,545,000 
5,400,000 
1,940,000 


ItfUian     Sphere 
Influence 

Libia 


of 


406,000 


528,000 


Portuguese     Sphere 
of  Influence 

Mozambique 
(Port.    East 
Africa) 

Spanish    Sphere    of 
Influence 

Spanish    Moroc- 


428,100       3,012,000 


Independent    Coun- 
tries 


Abyssinia . 
Liberia.  .  . 


11,000 


350,000 
40,000 


600,000 


8,000,000 
2,000,000 


TWENTY-FIVE  LARGEST  CITIES  IN  THE  WORLD 


Population 

1.  New  York,  U.  S 5,621,000 

2.  London,  England 4,358,000 

3.  Paris.  France 2,888.000 

4.  Chicago,  U.  S 2,702,000 

5.  Petrograd,  Russia 2,319,000 

6.  Tokyo,  Japan 2,173,000 

7.  Berlin,  Germany 1,898,000 

8.  Vienna,  Austria 1,839,000 

9.  Philadfelphia,  U.S.... l',823,-600 


Population 

10.  Moscow,  Russia 1,817,000 

11.  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina 1,637,000 

12.  Hankow,  China 1,444,000 

13.  Osaka,  Japan 1,2.53,000 

14.  Calcutta,  India 1,222,000 

15.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil 1,128,000 

16.  Glasgow.  Scotland 1,111,000 

17.  Mexico  CSy,  Mexico 1 ,080,000 

310 


Population 

Constantinople,  Turkey 1,000,000 

Peking,  China 1,000,000 

Shanghai,  China 1,000,000 


Detroit,  U.S. 

Bombay,  India 

Hamburg,  Germany. 

Canton,  China 

Budapest,  Hungary. 


994,000 
979,000 
931,000 
900,000 
880,000 


APPENDIX 


311 


Area  in 

State  Square  Population 

MUes  1920 

Alabama 52,000  2,348,000 

Arizona 1 14,000  334,000 

Arkansas 53,300  1 ,752,000 

California 158.300  3,427,000 

Colorado 103,900  940,000 

Connecticut 5,000  1,381,000 

Delaware 2,400  223,000 

District  of  Columbia  70  438,000 

Florida 58,700  968,000 

Georgia 59,300  2,896,000 

Idaho 83,900  432,000 

Illinois 56,700  6,485,000 

Indiana 36,400  2,930,000 

Iowa 56,100  2,404,000 

Kansas 82,200  1,769,000 

Kentucky 40,600  2,417,000 

Louisiana 48,500  1,799,000 

Maine 33,000  768,000 

Maryland 12,300  1,450,000 

Massachusetts 8,300  3,852,000 

Mieliigan 58,000  3,668,000 

Minnesota 84,700  2,387,000 


UNITED  STATES  AND  POSSESSIONS 
Area  in 

State  Square  Population 

Miles  1920 

Mississippi 46,900  1,791,000 

Missouri 69,400  3,404,000 

Montana 147,200  549,000 

Nebraska 77,500  1,296,000 

Nevada 110,700  77,000 

New  Hampshire 9,300  443,000 

New  Jersey 8,200  3,156,000 

New  Mexico 122,600  380,000 

New  York 49,200  10,385-,t)00 

North  CaroHna 52,400  2,559,000 

North  Dakota 70,600  646,000 

Ohio 41,000  5,759,000 

Oklahoma 70,000  2,028,000 

Oregon 96,700  783,000 

Pennsylvania 45,100  8,720,000 

Rhode  Island 1,250  604,000 

South  Carolina 31,000  1,684,000 

South  Dakota 77,600  637,000 

Tennessee 42,000  2,338,000 

Texas 265,900  4,663,000 

Utah 85,000  449,000 

Vermont 9,600  352,000 


Area  in 

State  Square  Population 

Miles  1920 

Virginia 42,600  2,309,000 

Washington 69,100  1,357,000 

West  Virginia 24,200  1,464,000 

Wisconsin 56,100  2,632,000 

Wyoming 97,900  194,000 

United  States 

(continental) 3,027,000  105,709,000 

Outlying  Pogses/iion« .  12,149,000 

Alaska 590,900  55,000 

American  .Samoa .  .  102  8,000 

Guam 225  13,000 

Hawaii 6,450  256,000 

Military  and  naval 

serrice  abroad.  .  .  117,000 
Panama    Canal 

Zone 500  23,000 

Philippine  Islands.  115,000  10,351,000 

Porto  Rico 3,600  1,300,000 

Virgin     Islands    of 

U.  S 130  26,000 

Total  United  States..  3,743,907  117,858,000 


TWENTY 
Population 
1920 

1.  New  York 5,621,000 

2.  Chicago,  111 2,702,000 

3.  Philadelphia,  Pa 1,823,000 

4.  Detroit,  Mich 994,000 

5.  Cleveland,  Ohio 797,000 

6.  St.  Louis.  Mo 773.000 

7.  Boston.  Mass 748,000 

8.  Baltimore,  Md 734,000 

9.  Pittsburgh,  Pa 588,000 


FIVE  LARGEST  CITIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Population 
1920 

10.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 577,000 

11.  San  Franoisoo,  Cal 508,000 

12.  Buffalo,  N.  Y 507,000 

13.  Milwaukee,  Wis 457,000 

14.  Washington,  D.  C. .  . '. 438,000 

15.  Newark,  N.  .1 414,000 

16.  Cincinnati,  Ohio 401,000 

17.  New  Orleans,  La 387,000 

18.  Minneapolis,  Minn 381,000 


Population 
1920 

19.  Kansas  City,  Mo 324,000 

20.  Seattle,  Wash 316,000 

2fl.  Indianapolis,  Ind 314,000 

22.  Jersey  City,  N.J 298,000 

23.  Rochester,  N.  Y 296,000 

24.  Portland,  Ore 258,(K)0 

25.  Denver,  Colo 256,000 


CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  HAVING  A  POPULATION  OF  25,000  OR  OVER,  INCLUDING  THE  CAPITAL   AND 


Akron,  Ohio 

Alameda,  Cal 

Albany,  N.  Y 

Albuquerque,  N.  M. 
AUentown,  Pa 


Altoona,  Pa 

Amsterdam,  N.  Y.. . , 

Anderson,  Ind 

Annapolis,  Md 

Asheville,  N.  C 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Atlantic  City,  N.  J. . 

Auburn,  N.  Y 

Augusta,  Ga 

Augiista,  Me 


Aurora,  111 

Austin,  Tex 

Baltimore.  Md 

Bangor,  Me 

Baton  Rouge,  La. .  . 

Battle  Creek,  Mich. . 

Bay  City,  Mich 

Bayonne,  N.J 

Beaumont,  Tex 

Bellingham,  Wash. .  , 

Berkeley,  Cal 

Bethlehem,  Pa 

Binghamton,  N.  Y.. 
Birmingham,  Ala..  . 
Bismarck,  N.  D. .  .  . 

Bloomington,  111.. . . 

Boise,  Idaho 

Boston,  Mass 

Bridgeport,  Conn... 
Brockton,  Mass. .  .  . 

Brookline,  Mass. .  . . 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Burlington,  Vt 

Butte,  Mont 

Cambridge,  Mass. . . 

Camden,  N.  J 

Canton,  Ohio 

Carson  City,  Nev. . . 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa. 
Charleston,  S.  C. . . . 


Population 
1920 

208,000 
29,000 

113.000 
15,000 
74,000 

60,000 
.34,000 
30,000 
11,000 
29,000 

201,000 
51,000 
36,000 
53,000 
14,000 

36,000 
35,000 
734,000 
26,000 
22,000 

36,000 
48,000 
77,000 
40,000 
26,000 

56,000 

50,000 

67,000 

178,000 

7,000 

29,000 

21,000 

748,000 

144,000 

66,000 

38,000 

.507,000 

23,000 

42,000 

110,000 

116,000 

87,000 

2,000 

46,000 

68,000 


LARGEST  CITY  OF  EACH    STATE 

Population 
1920 

40,000 

46,000 

58,000 

43,000 

58,000 


Charleston,  W.  Va. 
Charlotte,  N.  C. .  . 
Chattanooga,  Tenn 

Chelsea,  Mass 

Chester,  P.i 


Cheyenne,  Wyo 14,000 

Chicago,  111 2,702,000 

Chicopee,  Mass 36,000 

Cicero,  III 45,000 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 401,000 


Clarksburg,  W.  Va 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Clifton,  N.  J 

Colorado  Springs,  Colo. 
Columbia,  S.  C 

Columbus,  Ga 

Columbus,  Ohio 

Concord,  N.  H 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa.  .  . 
Covington,  Ky 

Cranston,  R.  I 

Cumberland,  Md 

Dallas,  Tex 

Danville.  Ill 

Davenport,  Iowa 

Dayton,  Ohio 

Decatur,  111 

Denver,  Colo 

Dcs  Moines,  Iowa 

Detroit,  Mioh 


Dover,  Del 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Duluth,  IMinn 

East  Chicago,  Ind. .  .  . 
East  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Easton,  Pa 

East  Orange,  N.  J. .  .  . 
East  St.  Louis,  111. .  .  . 

Elgin,  111 

Elizabeth,  N.  J 

Elmira,  N.  Y 

El  Paso,  Tex 

Erie,  Pa 

E\tinston,  111 

Evans^'ille,  Ind 


28,000 
797,000 
26,000 
30,000 
38,000 

31,000 
237,000 
22,000 
36,000 
57,000 

29,000 
30,000 
159,000 
34,000 
57,000 

153,000 
44,000 
256,000 
126,000 
994,000 

4,000 
39,000 
99,000 
36,000 
27,000 

34,000 
51,000 
67,000 
27,000 
96,000 

45,000 
78,000 
93.000 
37.000 
85,000 


Everett,  Mass.. . . 
Everett,  Wash..  . 
Fall  River,  Mass. 

Fargo,  N.  D 

Fitchburg,  Ma.ss. . 

Flint,  Mich 

Fort  Smith,  Ark. . 
Fort  W&yne,  Ind. 
Fort  Worth,  Tex. 
Frankfort,  Ky 


Fresno,  Cal 

Galveston,  Tex 

Gary,  Ind 

Grand  Rapids,  Midi. 
Green  Bay,  Wis 

Hagerstown,  Md. .  .  . 
Hamilton,  Ohio!  .  .  .  . 

Hammond,  Ind 

Hamtramck,  Mioh. .  . 
Harrisburg,  Pa 


Hartford,  Conn 

Haverhill,  Mass 

Hazlcton.  Pa 

Helena,  Mont 

Highland  Park,  Mich 

Iloboken,  N.  J 

Holyoke,  Mass 

Honolulu,  Hawaii .  .  . 

Houston,  Tex 

Huntington,  W.  Va.. 

Indianapolis,  Ind. .  .  . 

Irvington,  N.  J 

Jackson.  Mich 

Jackson.  Miss 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

Jamestown,  N.  Y.. .  . 
Jefferson  City,  Mo. .  . 
Jersey  City,  N.  J. .  .  . 

Johnstown,  Pa 

Joliet,  111 


Joplin,  Mo 

Juneau,  Alaska .  .  . 
Kalamazoo,  Mich.. 
Kansas  City,  Kan. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. . 


Population 
1920 
40,000 
28,000 
120,000 
22,000 
41,000 

92,000 
29,000 
87,000 
106,000 
10,000 

45,000 
44,000 
55,000 
138,000 
31,000 

28,000 
40,000 
36,000 
49,000 
76,000 

138,000 
54,000 
32,000 
12,000 
46,000 

68,000 
60,000 
83,000 
138,000 
50,000 

314,000 
25,000 
48,000 
23,000 
92,000 

39,000 
14,000 
298,000 
67,000 
38,000 

30,000 
3,000 

49,000 
101,000 
324,000 


312 


APPENDIX 


Kearny,  N.J , 

Kenosha,  Wis 

Kingston,  N.  Y..  . 
Knoxvillej  Tenn. .  . 
Kokomo,  Ind 

La  Crosse,  Wis.  .  . 
Lakewood,  Ohio .  . 

Lancaster,  Pa 

Lansing,  Mich. .  .  . 
Lawrence,  Mass. .  . 

LewLston,  Me.-.  .  .  . 
Lexington,  Ky. .  .  . 

Lima,  Ohio 

Lincoln,  Neb 

Little  Rock,  Ark.. . 

Long  Beach,  Cal. . 

Lorain,  Ohio 

IjOS  Angeles,  Cal. . 

Louisville,  Ky 

Lowell,  Mass 

Lynchburg,  Va. .  . . 

Lynn,  Mass 

McKeesport,  Pa. .  . 
Macon,  Ga. ...... 

Madison,  Wis 

Maiden,  Mass 

Manchester,  N.  H. 

Manila,  P.  I 

Mansfield,  Ohio .  .  . 
Marion,  Ohio 

Medford,  Mass. .  .  . 
Memphis,  Tenn. .  . 
Meriden,  Conn. .  .  . 
Meridian,  Miss. .  .  . 
Miami,  Fla 


Milwaukee,  Wis 

Minneapolis,  Minn. .  . 

Mobile,  Ala 

Moline,  111 

Montclair,  N.  J 

Montgomery^  Ala 

Montpelier,  Vt 

Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y. 

Muncie,  Ind 

Muskegon,  Mich 

Muskogee,  Okla 

Nashua,  N.  H 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Newark,  N.  J 

Newark,  Ohio 


New  Bedford,  Mass.. . 
New  Britain,  Conn. .  . 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 

Newburgh,  N.  Y 

New  Castle,  Pa 

New  Haven,  Conn. .  .  . 
New  London,  Conn. .  . 

New  Orleans,  La 

Newport,  Ky 

Newport,  R.  I 


Newport  News,  Va. . 
New  Rochelle,  N.  Y. 
Newton,  Mass 


Population 
1920 
27,000 
40,000 
27,000 
78,000 
30,000 

30,000 
42,000 
53,000 
57,000 
94,000 

32,000 
42,000 
41,000 
55,000 
65,000 

56,000 

37,00a 

577,000 

235,000 

113,000 

30,000 
99,000 
46,000 
53,000 
38,000 

49,000 
78,000 
284,000 
28,000 
28,000 

39,000 
162,000 
35,000 
23,000 
30,000 

457,000 

381,000 

60,000 

31,000 

29,000 

43,000 
7,000 
43,000 
37,000 
37,000 

30,000 
28,000 
118,000 
414,000 
27,000 

121,000 
59,000 
33,000 
30,000 
45,000 

163,000 
26,000 

387,000 
29,000 
30,000 

36,000 
36,000 
46,000 


New  York,  N.  Y.... 
Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y . 


Norfolk,  Va. .  .  . 
Norristown,  Pa. 
Norwalk,  Conn. 
Norwich,  Conn. 
Oakland,  Cal 


Oak  Park,  111 

Ogden,  Utah 

Oaklahoma  City,  Okla. 

Olympia,  Wash 

Omaha,  Neb 


Orange,  N.  J.. . 
Oshkosh,  Wis. . 
Pasadena,  Cal.. 
Passaic,  N.  J.. . 
Paterson,  N.  J. 


Pawtucket,  R.  I. .  . . 
Pensacola,  Fla. .  .  ;  . 

Peoria,  III 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J. 
Petersburg,  Va 


Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Phoenix,  Ariz. .  .  . 

Pierre,  S.  D 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. .  . 
Pittsfield,  Mass. . 


Plainfield,  N.  J. . . . 

Pontiap,  Mich 

Port  Huron,  Mich. 

Portland,  Me 

Portland,  Ore 


Portsmouth,  Ohio. . . 
Portsmouth,  Va. .  .  . 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 
Providence,  R.  I.. . . 
Pueblo,  Colo 


Quincy,  111.. .  . 
Quincy,  Mass. 
Racine,  Wis. .  . 
Raleigh,  N.  C. 
Reading,  Pa. .  . 


Revere,  Mass. .  .  . 

Reno,  Nev 

Richmond,  Ind. .  . 
Richmond,  Va. .  . 
Roanoke,  Va 

Rochester,  N.  Y. . 

Rockford,  111 

Rock  Island,  111. . 

Rome,  N.  Y 

Sacramento,  CaL. 

Saginaw,  Mich. .  . 
St.  Joseph,  Mo. .  . 
St.  I/ouis,  Mo. .  .  . 
St.  Paul,  Minn..  . 
St.  Thomas,  V.  1. 


Salem,  Mass 

Salem,  Ore 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah . 


Population 
1920 
5,621,000 
51,000 

116,000 
32,000 
28,000 
30,000 

216,000 

40,000 

33,000 

91,000 

9,000 

192,000 

33,000 
33,000 
45,000 
64,000 
136,000 

64,000 
31,000 
76,000 
42,000 
31,000 

1,823,000 

29,000 

3,000 

588,000 

42,000 

28,000 
34,000 
26,000 
69,000 
258,000 

33,000 
54,000 
35,000 
238,000 
43,000 

36,000 
48,000 
59,000 
24,000 
108,000 

29,000 
12,000 
27,000 
172,000 
51,000 

296,000 
66,000 
35,000 
26,000 
66,000 

62,000 

78,000 

773,000 

235,000 

8,000 

43,000 

18.000 

118,000 


San  Antonio,  Tex. 
San  Diego,  Cal. .  . , 


San  Franoi.soo,  Cal. 

San  Jose,  Cal 

San  Juan,  P.  R.. .  . 
Santa  Fe,  N.  M. .  . 
Savannah,  Ga 


Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

Scranton,  Pa 

Seattle,  Wash 

Sheboygan,  Wis. .  .  , 
Shreveport,  La. .  .  . , 


Sioux  City,  Iowa. 
Sioux  Falls,  S.  D. 
Somerville,  Mass. 
South  Bend,  Ind.. 
Spokane,  Wash. . . 


Springfield,  111 

Springfield,  Mass. 
Springfield,  Mo. .  . 
Springfield,  Ohio . 
Stamford,  Conn..  , 


Steubenville,  Ohio. 

Stockton,  Cal 

Superior,  Wis 

Syracuse,  N.  Y.. .  . 
Tacoma,  Wash. .  .  . 


Tallahassee,  Fla. . 

Tampa,  Fla 

Taunton,  Mass. .  . 
Terre  Haute,  Ind. 
Toledo,  Ohio 


Topeka,  Kan. . 
Trenton,  N.  J. 
Troy,  N.  Y. .  . 
Tulsa,  Okla. .  . 
Utica,  N.  Y... 


Waco,  Tex 

Waltham,  Mass. .  . 

Warren,  Ohio 

Washington,  D.  C. 
Waterbury,  Conn. . 


Waterloo,  Iowa 

Watortown,  N.  Y 

West  Hoboken,  N.  J. . 
West  New  York,  N.  J . 
Wheeling,  W.  Va 


Wichita,  Kan 

Wichita  Falls,  Tex 

Wilkes-Barre,  Pa 

Wilmington,  Del 

Wilmington,  N.  C 

Williamsport,  Pa 

Winston-Salem,  N.  C. 

Woonsocket,  R.  I 

Worcester,  Mass 


Yonkers,  N.  Y 

York,  Pa 

Youngstown,  Ohio. 
Zanesville,  Ohio . . . 


Population 
1920 
161,000 
75,000 

508,000 

40,000 

72,000 

7,000 

83,000 

89,000 
138,000 
316,000 
31,000 
44,000 

71,000 
25,000 
93,000 
71,000 
104,000 

59,000 
130,000 
40,000 
61',000 
40,000 

29,000 
40,000 
40,000 
172,000 
97,000 

6,000 

51,000 

37,000 

66,000 

243,000 

50,000 

119.000 

72,000 

72;ooo 

94,000 

39,000 
31,000 

27,000 

438,000 

91,000 

36,000 
31,000 
40,000 
30,000 
54,000 

72,000 
40,000 
74,000 
110,000 
33,000 

36,000 
48,000 
43,000 
180,000 

100,000 
48,000 

132,000 
30,000 


FOREIGN  CITIES:HAVING  A  POPULATION  OF  250,000  OR  MORE 


Population 
250,000 
445,000 
644,000 
310,000 
250,000 
348,000 
250,000 
541,000 
619,000 
393,000 
Berlin,  Germany 1,898,000 


Aleppo,  Syria 

Alexandria,  EgjTjt 

Amsterdam,  The  Netherlands. 

Antwerp,  Belgium 

Bagdad,  Mesopotamia 

Bahia,  Brazil 

Baku,  Azerbaijan 

Bangkok,  Siam_ 

Barcelona,  Spain 

Belfast,  Ireland. 


Birmingham,  England . 

Bombay,  India 

Bordeaux,  France.  .  . 
Bradford,  England.  . 
Breslau,  Germany . . . 
Bristol,  England .... 
Brussels,  Belgium.  .  . 
Bucharest,  Rumania. 
Budapest,  Hungary.. 


862,000 
979,000 
262,000 
283,000 
512,000 
362,000 
679,000 
309,000 
880,000 


Population 

Buenos  Aires,  Argentina 1 ,637,000 

Cairo,  Egypt 791,000 

Calcutta,  India 1,222,000 

Canton,  China 900,000 

Charlottenburg,  Germany 306,000 

Chemnitz,  Germany 288,000 

Christiania,  Norway 259,000 

Cologne,  Germany 5]  7,000 

Constantinople,  Turkey 1,000,000 


Copenhagen,  Denmark . 

Damascus,  Syria 

Dortmund,  Germany. 
Dresden,  Germany.  .  . 

Dublin,  Ireland 

Dusseldorf,  Germany. 
Edinburgh,  Scotland. , 

E.ssen,  Germany 

Foochow,  China 

Frankfort,  Germany. . 
Genoa,  Italy 


506,000 
250,000 
282,000 
548,000 
309,  OOt) 
359,000 
334,000 
464,000 
624,000 
415,000 
300,000 


Population 

Glasgow,  Scotland 1.111,000 

Hague,  The,  The  Netherlands 352,000 

Hamburg,  Germany 931,000 

Hangohow.  China 6-34,000 

Hankow,  China 1,444,000 

Hanover,  Germany 302,000 

Havana,  Cuba. 361,000 

Hongkong,  China 366,000 

Kiev,  Ukraine 610,000 

Kobe,  Japan 609,000 

Kvoto,  Japan 591,000 

Leeds,  England 431,000 

Leipzig,  Germany .590,000 

Lisbon,  Portugal 435,000 

Liverpool,  England 773,000 

Lodz,  Poland 424,000 

London,  England '. 4,358,000 

Lucknow,  India 260,000 

Lyon,  France 524,000 

Madras,  India 519,000 


APPENDIX 


313 


Population 

Madrid,  Spain 652,000 

Magdeburg,  Gcrinany 280,000 

Manchnster,  England 741,000 

Marseille,  France 551 , OCX) 

Melbourne,  Australia 724,000 

Mexico  City,  Mexico 1,080,000 

Milan,  Italy 663,000 

Montevideo,  Uruguay 361,0(X3 

Montreal,  Canada 700,000 

Moscow,  Russia 1,817,000 

Munich,  Germany 596,000 

Nagoya,  Japan 430,000 

Naples,  Italy 698,000 

Ningpo,  China 670,000 

Nuremberg,  Germany 333,000 

Odessa,  Ukraine 631,000 

Osaka,  Japan 1,253.000 


Population 

Palermo,  Sicily 346,000 

Para  (Balem),  Brazil 275,000 

Paris,  France 2,888,000 

Peking,  China 1,000,000 

Petrograd,  Russia 2,319,000 

Prague,  Czecho-Slovakia 617,(KX) 

Rangoon,  Burma 294,000 

Riga,  Latvia 569,0(X) 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil 1,128,000 

Rome,  Italy 591,000 

Rotterdam,  The  Netherlands 501,000 

Saloniki,  Greece 250,000 

Santiago,  Chile 416.000 

Sao  Paulo,  Brazil 450,000 

Shanghai,  China 1,000,000 

Sheffield.  England 474,000 

Singapore.  Straits  Settlements ....  260.000 


Population 
Smyrna,    Greek   territory   in   Asia 

Minor 375.000 

Sooohow,  China 500.000 

Stockholm.  Sweden 408.000 

Stuttgart,  Germany 286.000 

Sydney.  Australia 793.000 

Tashkend.  Russian  Turkestan.  .  .  .  272.000 

Tientsin.  China 800.000 

Tiflis.  Georgia 347,000 

Tokyo.  Japan 2,173,000 

Toronto,  Canada 510,000 

Turin.  Italy 452,000 

Vienna,  Au.'stria 1,839,000 

Warsaw,  Poland 820,000 

West  Ham,  England 288,000 

Yokohama,  Japan 423,000 


ELEVATION  OF  SOME  PLATEAUS  AND  MOUNTAIN  PEAKS 


Feet 

Abyssinian  Plateau 5-7,000 

Aconcagua,  Andes.  Argentina  (high- 
est in  South  America) 22,860 

Apo,  Mindanao,  Philippines 10,312 

Ararat,  Armenia 17,325 

Mt.  Blanc.  Alps,  France  (highest  in 

Alps) 15,781 

Bolivian  J'lateau 10-13.000 

Brazilian  Plateau 2-2.500 

Cliimbor.azo,  Andes,  Ecuador 20,498 

Cotopaxi,  Andes,  Ecuador 19,613 

Elbruz,  Caucasus,  Russia  (highest  in 

Europe) •. 18,200 

Etna,  Sicily . 10.835 

Everest.  Himalayas,  Nopal  (highest 

in  the  world) 29,002 


Feet 

Fujiyama,  Japan 12, .365 

Kanchanjanga,jHimaIayas,  Nepal.  . .  28,156 

Kenia,  Africa 18,620 

Kilimanjaro,  Africa  (highest  in  Africa)  19,780 

Lassen,  Sierra  Nevada,  Cal 10,577 

Logan,  Coast  Ranges,  Canada  (high- 
est in  Canada) 19,539 

McKinloy,  Alaska  (highest  in  North 

America) 20,300 

Mauna  Kea.  Hawaiian  Lslands 13.805 

Mauna  Loa,  Hawaiian  Islands 13,675 

Mexican  Plateau 5-6,000 

Mitchell,    Appalachian    Mts.,    N.   C. 

(highest  in  Eastern  U.  S.) 6,711 

Mt.  Tina,  Haiti 10.300 

Orizaba,  Mexico  (highest  in  Mexico)..  18,314 


Feet 
Pike's  Peak,  Rocky  Mountains,  Colo- 
rado       14,111 

Popocatepetl,  Mexico 17,798 

Ramier,   Cascade  Mountains,   Wash- 
ington       14..363 

St.  Elias.  Alaska 18,025 

San  FrancLsco  Mountain.  Arizona. . .  .      12,794 
Shasta,    Cascade     Mountains,    Cali- 
fornia        14,380 

Tibet  Plateau 10-15,000 

United  States,  Western  Plateau 4-6,000 

Vesuvius,  Italy 4,200 

Washington,  White  Mountains,  N.  H. 

(highest  in  Northeastern  U.S.) 6,279 

Whitney,    Sierra    Nevada.    California 

(highest  in  Continental  U.  S.) 14,502 


SOME  OF  THE  LARGEST  RIVERS  OF  THE  WORLD 


Length 

in 
Miles 
North  America 

Arkansas 2,170 

Colorado 2,000 

Columbia 1,400 

Mackenzie 2,500 

Missouri 3,000 


Basin 

Area       Ocean 
Sq.  Miles 

185,671  Atlantio 
225,049  Pacific 
216,537  Pacific 
590,000  Arctic 
527,155  Atlantio 


Missouri-Mississippi.  4,300  1,257,000  Atlantio 

Ohio 975      201,720  Atlantic 

Rio  Grande 1,800      240,000  Atlantic 

St.  Lawrenoe 2,200      530,000  Atlantic 

Yukon 2,000      440,000  Pacific 


Length      Basin 

in  Area       Ocean 

Miles  Sq.  Miles 
South  America 

Amazon 3,.300  2,500,000  Atlantic 

Orinooo 1,.350  366,000  Atlantic 

Plata 2,580  1,200,000  Atlantic 


Europe 

Danube 1,770 

Dnieper 1,200 

Dwina 1,000 


300,000  Atlantic 
242,000  Atlantic 
140,000  Arctic 


Rhine 800  75.000  Atlantio 

Rhone 500  .38,000  Atlantic 

Seine 482  30,300  Atlantic 

Volga 2,400  563,300  Caspian 


Length 


Basin 

Area       Ocean 
Sq.  Miles 


Miles 
Asia 

Amur 2,800  520,000  Paoifio 

Brahmaputra 1.800  425.000  Indian 

Ganges 1..500  440,000  Indian 

Hwang' 2.700  570.000  Paoifio 

Lena 2,800  950,000  Arctic 

Ob 3,200  1,000.000  Arctic 

Yangtze 3,200  548,000  Paoifio 

Yenisei 3,000  1,500,000  Arctic 

Africa 

Kongo 2,900  1,200,000  Atlantio 

Niger 2,600  563,300  Atlantio 

Nile 3,400  1,273,000  Atlantic 

Zambezi 1,500  600,000  Indian 


SOME  OF  THE  LARGEST  LAKES  OF  THE  WORLD 


Sq. 
Miles 

Aral  Sea 26,900 

Baikal 12,500 

Caspian 169,000 

Dead  Sea 370 

Erie 9.990 

'Below  sea  level. 


Area  in       Ele-     Greatest 


Area  in       Ele-     Greatest 


vation 

Depth 

Sq. 

vation 

Depth 

in  Feet 

in  Feet 

Miles 

in  Feet 

in  Feet 

160 

225 

Great  Bear  Lake.. 

11,200 

200 

1.312 

4,550 

Great  Salt  Lake .  . 

2,360 

4.218 

30-50 

-851 

2,400 

Great  Slave  Lake. 

10.100 

over  650 

-1,310' 

1,330 

Huron 

22  322 

582 

750 

573 

210 

Manitoba 

1.850 

810 

Miohigan 

21.729 

582 

870 

Area  in       Ele-     Greatest 


Sq. 
Miles 

Nyasa 14.000 

Ontario 7,104 

Superior 30,829 

Tanganyika 12,650 

Victoria  Nyanza. .     30,000 
Winnipeg 9.400 


vation 

Depth 
in  Feet 

in  Feet 

1,500 

600-1- 

247 

738 

602 

1,008 

2,800 

2,100 

4,000 

590-f 

710 

70 

INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 

KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 
(Webster's  International  Dictionary) 

a,  as  in  ale;  a,  as  in  sen'ate;  &,  as  in  cire;  £,  as  in  am;  a,  as  in  arm;  a,  as  in  ask;  a,  as  in  fi'nal;  a,  as  in  all; 
e,  as  in  eve;  e,  as  in  e-vent';  e,  as  in  end;  e,  as  in  fern;  e,  as  in  re 'cent;  i,  as  in  Ice;  i,  as  in  i-de'a;  I,  as  in  111;  i,  as  in 
police;  6,  as  in  old;  6,  as  in  6-bey';  6,  as  in  6rb;  6,  as  in  son;  6,  as  in  odd;  u,  as  in  use;  u,  as  in  u-nite';  u,  as  in  rude; 
u,  as  in  full;  u,  as  in  up;  fi,  as  in  firn;  y,  as  in  pit'y;  oo,  as  in  food;  oo,  as  in  foot;  ou,  as  in  out;  oi,  as  in  oil;  N,  rep- 
resenting simply  the  nasal  tone  of  the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  ensemble  (aN'saN'b'l);  '  (for  voice  glide),  as  in  pardon 
(par'd'n);  g  (hard),  as  in  go;  s  (sharp),  as  in  so;  z  (like  s  sonant),  as  in  zone;  ch  (  =  tsh),  as  in  chair;  sh,  for  ch, 
as  in  machine;  zh  (  =  sh  made  sonant),  for  z,  as  in  azure;  j  (=dzh),  for  g,  as  in  gem;  k,  for  ch,  as  in  chorus;  kw, 
for  qu,  as  in  queen;  ks  (surd), for  x,  as  in  vex;  gz  (sonant),  for  x,  as  in  exist;  f,  for  ph,  as  in  philosophy;  hw,  for  wh, 
as  in  what;  t,  for  ed,  as  in  baked;  ng,  as  in  long;  n  (like  ng),  for  n  before  the  sound  of  k  or  hard  g,  as  in  bank;  n 
(ordinary  sound),  as  in  no. 

The  primary  accent  is  indicated  by  a  short,  heavy  mark  (')>  the  secondary  by  a  lighter  mark  (')• 
The  numbers  refer  to  pages.     Where  several  references  are  given,  the  pages  on  which  the  principal  description 
is  to  be  found  are  indicated  by  heavier  type. 


A-c4-pul'c6,  166. 

A-con-cfi'gua,  Mt.,  186. 

A-crop'o-lis,  254. 

Ad-I-rdn'dack  Moimtains, 
73. 

A-do'be  bricks,  187. 

Ad-rl-at'Ic  Sea,  252. 

^-ge'an  Sea,  263. 

Af'ri-ca,  291-302;  called 
the  Dark  Continent,  291 ; 
Cape-to-Cairo  Railroad, 
299-300;  causes  for  lack 
of  knowledge  about,  291; 
Central,  40,  300;  climate 
and  its  dangers,  294-295; 
effect  of  native  life  on 
exploration,  295;  falls  in 
rivers,  294;  Kongo  Basin, 
300-301;  Mediterranean 
coast,  295-296;  Nile 
River  region,  296-297; 
southern  part,  298-299; 
statistics  of  area  and 
population,  310;  trade 
of  United  States  with, 
307-308. 

Agriculture,  use  of  soil  for, 
8-10.     See  Farming. 

Air,  movement  of,  as  winds, 

^  12-13;   vapor  in,  14. 

Al-a-ba'ma,  102. 

A-Us'ka,  55,  58,  143-145. 

Al-ba'ni-a,  247. 

Al'ba-ny  (N.  ¥.),  76. 

Al-ber'ta,  157. 

Aldermen,  30. 

Al-ex-an'dri-a,  297. 

Al-fai'fa,  131;  Alberta,  157; 
Argentina,  187;  Cali- 
fornia, 124,  132;     Colo- 

^  rado,  131;    Utah,  127. 

Al-ge'rI-a,  214 

Al-giers',  296. 

Al-hSm'bra,  239,  242,  295. 

Al  'le-gha-ny  Moimtains ,  76 . 

Al'le-ghe-ny  Plateau,  96. 

Allegheny  River,  76. 

Alligators,  Brazil,  192. 

Alp,  defined,  223. 

Al-p&c'as,  184. 


Al-pe'na  (Mich.),  86. 

Alps,  196,  219,  220-222; 
Tyrolean,   196,  249. 

Am'a-zon  River,  190-192; 
Kongo    River   compared 

^  with,  300-301. 

Am'ster-dam,  224. 

A'miind-sen,  Ro'ald,  38. 

An'des  Mountains,  183, 
184,  186. 

Animals,  Africa,  295;  Aus- 
tralia, 283;  Brazil,  191- 
192;  frigid  zones,  42; 
India,  268;  Kongo  re- 
gion, 301;     Yellowstone 

^  National  Park,  134. 

Ant-arc'tic  Circle,  40,  41. 

Antarctic  continent,  48. 

An'thra-cite,  77. 

An-til'les  {or  aN-tel'),  170. 

An'-to-fa-gas'ta,  184. 

Ant'werp,  224,  227. 

Apartment  houses,  70. 

Ap 'en-nines,  243. 

Ap-pa-la'chl-an  Highland 
(or  -lach'I-an),  102. 

Apples,  British  Columbia, 
158;  California,  132; 
Canada,  157, 158;  Michi- 
gan, 90;  Northeastern 
States,   81 ;   Washington 

_  (state),  135. 

A'pri-cots,  Washington,  135. 

A-ra'bi-a,  258. 

Ar'al,  Lake,  257,  259. 

Ar-chi-pel'a-go  (ar-M-pel'- 

..  a-go),  287. 

Arc 'tic  Circle,  40,  41,  227. 

Arctic  Ocean,  48. 

Area  and  population,  tables 
of,  310-313. 

Ar-gen-ti'na,  186-188,  306. 

Ar-i-z6'na,  138,  139. 

Ar'kan-sas  (ar'kan-sa),116. 

Ar'no  River,  244. 

A'sia,  48,  256-279;  general 
facts,  257-259;  India, 
Indo-China,  and  Malay 
Peninsula,  266-269;  Si- 
beria and  central,   264- 


265;  southwestern,  259- 
263;  statistics  of  area 
and  population,  310;  the 
Far  East,  269-279;  trade 
of   United   States   with, 

^308. 

As'philt,  Trinidad,  171 ;  use 
of,  in  road-making,  22. 

Ath'ens,  253-254. 

At-lin'ta   (Ga.),   102,   106, 

^  119. 

At-lan'tic    Ocean,    48,    49, 

^  72. 

At'las  Mountains,  296. 

Attar  of  roses,  252. 

Aus-trol-a'si-a,    283-289. 

Aus-tra'll-a,  48,  283-286; 
area  and  population,  310; 
trade  relations  with  Unit- 
ed States,  307-308. 

Aus'tri-a,  249,  250. 

Automobiles,  22,  78,  85; 
France,  214;  used  in 
China,  274. 

Avalanches,  221. 

Axis  of  earth,  38. 

A-z6res'  Islands,  242. 

Ba-ha'ma  Islands,  35,  168. 

Bah-i'a  (Brazil)  (ba-e'a), 
190. 

Bai-kal',  Lake,  265. 

Bal-kan'  countries  {or  bal'- 
kan),  247-255. 

Balkan  Moimtains,  252. 

Balkan  Peninsula,  252. 

Bal'tic  Sea,  218. 

Bal'tl-more,  75,  76,  82. 

Bananas,  Central  America 
and  West  Indies,  172; 
Costa  Rica,  168;  Florida, 
106;  Mexico,  165;  South- 
ern States,  106;  West 
Indies,  168. 

Banks  in  New  York  City, 
70. 

Bar-ce-16'na,  237. 

Barge  Canal,  New  York,  73. 

Barley,  Argentina,  187;  Cal- 
ifornia, 132;  China,  272; 
Colorado,    130;   Czecho- 


slovakia, 252;  Germany, 
216;  Great  Britain,  207; 
Russia,  232;  Washington 
(state),  135. 

BS'sel,  223. 

Ba-va'ri-a,  216. 

Bay  City  (Mich.),  86. 

Bays,  50. 

Beans,  Mexico,  165.  See 
Vegetables. 

Beer  making,  Germany, 
218. 

Bel-fast'  (or  bel'fast),  208 

Bel'gi-xim,  224-226. 

Bel-grade',  249,  251,  252. 

Be'ring  Sea,  145. 

Ber-lin',  215. 

Berlin-Constantinople  rail- 
road, 249,  251,  252.  254. 

Big  Trees,  California,  137. 

Bn'lings  (Mont.),  134. 

Bir'ming-ham  (Ala.)  (ber'- 
ming-am),  106,  114,  116. 

Birmingham  (Eng.),  203. 

Bituminous  coal,  77. 

Black  Sea,  219,  247,  248, 
251,  253. 

Blanc,  Mont  (m6n-biaN'), 
220,  221. 

Blast  furnaces.  North  Cen- 
tral States,  84. 

Bluefish.  /See  Fisheries. 

B6-g6-ta',  182. 

B6-he'mi-an  glass,  250. 

B6-kha'ra,  province,  265. 

B6-liv'i-a,  177. 

Bom-bay',  266,  267. 

Boot  and  shoe  making, 
79,  95,  159. 

Bor-deaux'  (b6r-d6'),210. 

B6r'ne-6,  287, 

B6s'p6-rus,  251. 

BSs'ton  (Mass.),  75-76,  82. 

Bou-logne',  210. 

Boundaries  of  countries,  58; 
natural,  58. 

BrWford  (Eng.),  206. 

Bra-zil',  178,  188-192. 

Bread,  2. 

Breakwaters,  50. 

Brem'en,  218. 


315 


316 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Bres'lau  (bres'lou),  215. 

Brest,  210. 

Brick  making,  3;  Argen- 
tina, 187;  used  in  road- 
making,  22. 

Brit'ish  Af' ri-ca,  299. 

British  C6-lum'bi-a,  158. 

British  Em'pire,  160,  195, 
197,  266,  298. 

British  Gui-a'na,  195. 

British  Hon-du'ras,  171. 

British  Isles,  197-209. 

British  Parliament,  202. 

Brit'ta-ny,  213. 

Brooklyn,  67. 

Brus'sels,  224.        _ 

Bu-cha-rest'  (or  boo),  254. 

Bu'da-pest,  249,  250. 

Bud'dhism,  259. 

Bue'nos  Ai'res  (i'ras),  185, 
186,  187-188. 

Buf 'fa-16  (N.  Y.),  73,  76,  84. 

Btiffalo  herds,  134. 

Bul-ga'ri-a,  252. 

Buoys,  52-53;  bell  and 
whistling,  53. 

Bftr'ma,  270. 

Burros   (boor'os),  166,  167. 

Butte   (Mont.),   134-135. 

Cabbages.   See  Vegetables. 

Cabinet  woods,  Brazil,  191. 

Cacao,  Brazil,  190;  Ecua- 
dor, 179,  182. 

Ca'diz,  237. 

Cai'ro  (Egypt),  297. 

Ca-lais'  (ka-la'),  210. 

Cal-cut'ta,  266,  268,  269. 

Cal-i-f6r'ni-a,  102,  120-122, 
137;  southern,  139-141; 
Valley  of,  132. 

Cal-la'6,  183. 

Cam'bridge  (Mass.),  75. 

Cam'dcn  (N.  J.),  74. 

Camels,  297. 

Can'a-da,  Dominion  of,  55, 
58,  166-160;  trade  rela- 
tions of  United  States 
and,  303,  306. 

Canadian  Rockies,  159. 

Canals,  86-87;  China, 
273-274. 

Can'cer,  Tropic  of,  39-40. 

Can-ton'  (China),  273,  275. 

Capes,  51. 

Cape-to-CairoRailroad,299. 

Cape  Town,  298. 

Capital,  of  state,  30;  of 
United  States,  30. 

Capitol  building,  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  30,  80. 

Cap'ri-com,  Tropic  of,  40. 

Caravans,  central  Asia,  264, 
265;  northern  Africa, 
296. 

Car-ib-be'an  Sea,  170. 

Carpet  manufacturing,  Phil- 
adelphia, 79;  south- 
western Asia,  262. 

Car-ra'ra  marble,  244.  245. 

Cas-cade'  Ranges,  135. 

Cas'pi-an  Sea,  232,  257, 
265. 


Caste  system,  266-267. 

Cats 'km  Mountains,  73,  75. 

Cattle  raising,  93;  Alberta, 
157;  Argentina,  187; 
Australia,  285;  Brazil, 
190;  California,  132; 
Czecho-Slovakia,  252; 
Egypt,  297;  France,  211; 
Great  Britain,  207-208; 
Mexico,  165;  Nether- 
lands, 225;  North  Central 
States,  95;  Rhodesia,  300; 
Siberia,  264;  Spain  and 
Portugal,  238;  world  dis- 
tribution, 308;  Yucatan, 
165. 

Central  America,  55,  148, 
168-173. 

Cer'ro  de^Pas'co,  183. 

Champs  Elysees  (shon'za- 
le-za'),  210,  211. 

Channels  to  harbors,  52. 

Charles'ton  (S.  C),  119. 

Char'lotte  A-ma'lie,  172. 

Charts,  52. 

Cheese,  Netherlands,  225. 
See  Dairying. 

Cher-bourg'  (sher-boor'), 
210. 

Cherries.     See  Fruits. 

Ches'a-peake  Bay,  oysters 
in,  82. 

Chey-enne '  ( W  y  o  m  i  n  g  ) 
(shi-en'),  123. 

Chi-ca'go  (111.),  91-93. 

Chicago  River,  91. 

CM'le,  184-185,  306. 

Chim'ney  Rock,  102. 

Chinaware,  269. 

Chi-nese',  in  San  Francis- 
co, 133. 

Chinese  Republic,  257,  258, 
259,269-276;  trade  with 
United  States,  308. 

Cho'sen,  277. 

Chris-ti-a'ni-a,  227. 

Cin-cin-na'ti  (Ohio),  94. 

Cities,  development  of,  due 
to  manufacturing  and 
trade,  19;  disadvantages 
of  river  cities,  94;  dis- 
tribution in  United  States, 
150;  largest  foreign,  312- 
313;  largest  in  United 
States,  311-312;  life  in, 
67,  70;  North  Central 
States,  84,  85,  91-93, 
94,  95;  Northeastern 
States,  67-76;  officers  of, 
30;  Southern  States,  102, 
106, 115, 116, 119;  twenty- 
five  largest  in  world,  310; 
Western  States,  125,  126, 
133, 134,  135,  136, 141. 

Citrus  fruits,  California, 
132;  Southern  States, 
106.  See  Lemons,  Or- 
anges, etc. 

City  halls,  30. 

Cleveland  (Ohio),  84,  85. 

Climate,  Africa,  294-295, 
298;  Alaska,  143;  Asia, 
257-258,  262;  Australia, 


284,  285;  Balkan  coun- 
tries, 252-253;  British 
Isles,  198-199;  California, 
136,  138;  Canada,  156- 
157, 158;  China,  269,  272; 
East  Indies,  287;  France, 
211;  India,  266,  268;  in- 
fluence on  character  of 
people,  303;  Italy,  242, 
246;  Kongo  region,  300; 
Mexico,  161,  164;  New 
Zealand,  286;  Oregon, 
136;  Puget  Sound  region, 
135,  136;  Russia,  231, 
232,  234;  Scandinavian 
countries,  227, 228;  South 
Africa,  298;  South  Ameri- 
ca, 177,  178,  179,  185, 
187;  southern  California, 
139-140;  Southern  States, 
101-102,  112,  152;  Spain 
and  Portugal,  237;  Swit- 
zerland, 219-220;  Wash- 
ington (state),  135,  136; 
West  Indies,  168,  170. 

Clock-making,  New  Eng- 
land, 79;  Switzerland, 
223. 

Clothing,  as  a  necessity,  1; 
in  frigid  zones,  43;  in 
torrid  zone,  40;  of  early 
settlers,  17;  origins  of,  2; 
places  where  manufac- 
tured, 79;  transportation 
of,  20-21. 

Clouds,  formation  of,  14-15. 

Clyde  River,  198. 

Coal,  76,  77;  Alaska,  144; 
Australia,  286;  Belgium, 
226;  British  Columbia, 
159;  Czecho-Slovakia, 
249;  France,  212,  213; 
Germany,  217;  Great 
Britain,  203;  Illinois,  92; 
importance  as  fuel,  77-78 ; 
kinds  of,  77;  lacking  in 
South  America,  178;  Nova 
Scotia,  159;Pennsylvania, 
77;  Russia,  231 ;  Southern 
States,  115;  Spain  and 
Portugal,  238;  state  pro- 
ducing the  most,  153. 

Coast  Ranges,  133. 

Co'coa,  Central  America 
and  West  Indies,  172; 
Ecuador,  182. 

Coconut  oil,  172. 

Coconuts,  Central  America 
and  West  Indies,  168, 
169,    172;   Florida,    101. 

Cod  fishing,  82,  160. 

Coffee,  Brazil,  189-190,  306; 
Costa  Rica,  168;  Cuba, 
170;  island  dependencies 
of  United  States,  147; 
Java,  287;  Mexico,  165; 
Mocha,  262;  south- 
western Asia,  262;  world 
production,  307. 

Co-logne'  (ko-lon'),  215. 

Co-lom'bi-a,  179,  182. 

C6-16n',  148,  168. 

C61-6-ra'd6,  124,  125. 


Colorado  River,  138,  139. 

Col-os-se'um,   Rome,   244. 

Columbia  River,  136,  138. 

C6-lum'bus,  Christopher, 
35-36,  287. 

Colvunbus  (Ohio),  95. 

Compass,  33;  first  used  by 
Chinese,  269. 

Concrete,  used  in  road- 
making,  22. 

Congress  of  United  States, 
31. 

Con-nect'i-cut,  58. 

Connecticut  Valley,  9. 

C6n'stan-ti[-n6'ple,248,250- 
251,  253. 

Continent,  defined,  195. 

Continents,  the  five,  47-48. 

Cook,  Mt.,  287. 

Cook  Inlet,  145. 

Cool-gar'die,  286. 

Co-pen-ha'gcn,  227. 

Copper,  Arizona,  139;  Aus- 
tralia, 286;  Lake  Supe- 
rior region,  87;  Mexico, 
165;  Minnesota,  87,  Mon- 
tana, 135;  Ontario,  159; 
Peru,  183;  Spain  and 
Portugal,  238;  Washing- 
ton (state),  135. 

Coral  reefs,  288. 

Cork  oak,  208. 

Corn,  Argentina,  187;  Aus- 
traUa,  285;  China,  272 
Egypt,  297;  France,  211 
Hungary,  252;  Italy,  245 
Kongo  region,  301 ;  North 
Central  States,  96;  pro- 
portion exported  by  Unit- 
ed States,  309;  region  of 
greatest  growth,    153; 
Southern     States,     103; 
world  acreage,  306. 

Com  Belt,  North  Central 

States,  93,  96,  153. 
Cos'ta  Ri'ca,  168. 
Co-to-pax'i,     Mt.     (ko-to- 

pak'se),  182. 
Cotton,   2,    20;    Australia, 
285;  Brazil,  190;  China, 
272;    East    Indies,    287; 
Egypt,  297,  307;  Kongo 
region,  301 ;  Malay  Penin- 
sula, 267;  Mexico,   165; 
at    New    Orleans,    118; 
Russia,    232;    Southern 
States,  104,  110, 111-115, 
152;  southwestern  Asia, 
262;    world    production, 
308. 
Cotton  Belt,  104. 
Cotton  bolls,  113. 
Cotton  gin,  112. 
Cotton  manufacturing,  Bel- 
gium, 226;  France,  212; 
Germany,     217;     Great 
Britain,  206;  Japan,  278; 
Milan,   246;    New   Eng- 
land, 79. 
Cottonseed  oil,  115. 
Coun'cil  Bluffy  (la.),  122. 
Crip 'pie     Creek       (Colo.), 
126. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


317 


Cu'ba,  146-147,  168,  169- 
170,  171 ;  trade  of  United 
States  with,  306-307. 

Cu-le'bra  Cut,  149. 

Culm,  77. 

Currents,  ocean,  49. 

Cutlery,  Milan,  246;  New 
England,    78. 

Cuz'co,  184. 

Czech 'o-slo-va'ki-a  (che- 
ko-slo-va'ki-a),  249-250. 

Dairying,  Australia,  285- 
286;  Canada,  157;  Den- 
mark, 229;  Great  Brit- 
ain, 208;  Illinois,  98; 
Japan,  278;  Netherlands, 
225;  North  Central 
States,  98;  Northeastern 
States,  81-82;  Ohio,  98; 
Switzerland,  223;  Wis- 
consin, 98. 

Dairymen,  3. 

DSl'las  (Texas),  119. 

Da-mas 'cus,   263. 

DSn'ube  region,  countries 
of,  247-255. 

Danube  River,  219,  224, 
250,  251,  253,  254. 

Dan'viUe  (Va.),  102. 

Dar'ling  River,  284. 

Dates,  Egypt,  297;  north- 
ern Africa,  296;  south- 
western Asia,  262;  Spain, 
238. 

Dead  Sea,  264. 

Degrees,  measuring  by,  47. 

Del'a-ware,  58. 

Delaware  River,  75. 

Del'hi,  266. 

Del'ta,  of  Mississippi,  105; 
of  Nile,  297,  298. 

Deltas,  25. 

Democracy,  government 
called,  31. 

Den'mark,  172,  227-230. 

Den'ver  (Colo.),  125-126. 

Deserts,  Arabia,  258;  Aus- 
traUa,  284;  Russia,  232; 
Sahara,  291,  296. 

Des  Moines'  (Iowa)  (de 
moin'),  95. 

De-troit'  (Mich.),  85. 

Detroit  River,  85. 

Dew,  15. 

Diamonds,  South  Africa, 
299. 

Dikes,  The  Netherlands, 
225. 

Directions,  33-34. 

District  of  Co-lum'bi-a, 
79-80. 

Divides,  9. 

Dominican  Republic,  171. 

Douglas  firs,  137. 

Drainage,  8;  New  Orleans, 
117-118. 

Dres'den,  215. 

Dry-dock,  48. 

Dry  farming,  131. 

Dub'lin,  208. 

Du-luth'  (Minn.),  73,  87, 
90. 


Dfir'ham  (N.  C),  103. 
Dutch  Gui-a'na,  195. 
Dyewoods,  Brazil,  191. 

Earth,  the,  35-54;  circum- 
ference, 36;  continents 
and  oceans,  47-54;  daily 
motion,  37-39;  diameter, 
36;  form  and  size,  35-36; 
latitude  and  longitude, 
47;  statistics  of  area, 
population,  etc.,  310; 
zones  and  hemispheres, 
39-42,  46. 

Earthquakes,  Central 
America  and  West  Indies, 
170. 

East  In'dies,  287-288. 

East  River,  67,  71. 

Ec-ua-dor'  {or  ek'-),  179. 

Ed'in-burgh  (ed'n-bur-6), 
202-203. 

Ed'mon-ton,  158. 

E'gypt,  294,  296-298;  trade 
of  United  States  with, 
307. 

E-gyp'tian  Su-dan',  299. 

Elections,  27-28. 

Electric  power,  94. 

Ellis  Island,  New  York,  74. 

El  Pa'so  (Texas),  102. 

Em'er-ald  Isle,  208. 

En 'gland  (in 'gland),  early 
settlements  in  North 
America,  55;  East  Indian 
possessions,  288;  United 
States  becomes  independ- 
ent of,  58.  See  British 
Isles. 

E-qua'tor,  39. 

Erie,  Lake,  84. 

Erie  Canal,  73. 

Es'ki-mos,  16-17,  38,  41- 
43,  46. 

Es-tho'ni-a,  235. 

Eii-phra'tes  River,  263. 

Eii-ra'sia,  195. 

Eu'rope,  195-255;  countries 
of  the  Danube  and  the 
Balkans,  247-254;  coun- 
tries of  western  Mediter- 
ranean, 237-247;  eastern, 
230-236;  general  facts, 
195-196;  northwestern, 
197-230;  statistics  of  area 
and  population,  310. 

Evaporation,  13. 

Ev'er-est,  Mt.,  258. 

Fair 'banks  (Alaska),  143, 
144. 

Farming,  3;  Argentina,  187, 
188;  Canada,  156,  157, 
158;  Central  America 
and  West  Indies,  168, 
172;  China,  274-275;  Col- 
orado, 127-128,  131; 
Czecho-Slovakia,  252; 
dry,  131;  Egypt,  297; 
France,  211-212;  Ganges 
Vallej^,  268;  Germany, 
215-217;   Great   Britain, 


207-208;  Hungary  and 
Rumania,  252,  253;  im- 
portance as  an  occupa- 
tion, 3;  influence  on 
population  of  United 
States,  152;  Ireland,  208; 
Italy,  243,  24.5-246;  land 
suitable  for,  8-9;  Mexico, 
165;  mixed,  98-99;  Neth- 
erlands, 225;  New  Zea- 
land, 286;  North  Central 
States,  92-93,  95-99; 
Northeastern  States,  80- 
82;  northern  Africa,  296; 
Norway,  229;  Poland, 
235;  Russia,  231-232;  Si- 
beria, 264;  South  Africa, 
298;  Southern  States, 
103,  107,  110-111;  Spain 
and  Portugal,  238;  Swit- 
zerland, 223;  winds  and 
rainfall  as  affecting,  11- 
16. 

Farm  machinery,  97,  99, 
100. 

Fertilizers,  7;  nitrate  of 
soda,   184,   185. 

Figs,  California,  132;  Egypt, 
297;  France,  211;  Greece, 
253;  northern  Africa,296; 
southwestern  Asia.  262. 

Fi'ji  Islands,  288. 

Fin'land,  229,  234-235. 

Finland,  Gulf  of,  230,  234. 

Fi6rds,  227,  286. 

Fisheries,  Alaska,  145; 
British  Isles,  203;  New- 
foundland, 160;  North- 
eastern States,  82-83 ; 
Pacific  Northwest,  137- 
138;  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries, 229-230. 

Flax,  2;  Argentina,  187; 
Belgium,  226;  Ireland, 
208;  Russia,  232;  Spain 
and  Portugal,  238. 

Flood  plains,  25,  298. 

Flor'ence,  244. 

F16r'i-da,  101,  102,  106. 

Flour,  2. 

Flour  milling,  Budapest, 
250;  Minneapolis,  95; 
Odessa,  234;  Spokane, 
135. 

Fog,  14. 

Foghorns,  52. 

Food,  in  frigid  zones,  42;  in 
torrid  zone,  40;  necessity 
of,  1;  of  early  settlers,  17; 
transportation  of,  20-21; 
where  found,  2. 

Forage  crops,  southern  Cal- 
ifornia, 140. 

For'a-ker,  Mt.,  144. 

Fords,  21. 

Forests  and  forest  products, 
Africa,  295,  301 ;  Alaska, 
143;  Australia,  283;  Cali- 
fornia, 137;  Canada,  157, 
159;  East  Indies,  287; 
Germany,  216;  Michigan, 
86;  Norway,  229;  Pacific 
Northwest,  137-138;  Rus- 


sia, 231, 233;  Siberia,  264; 
Southern  States,  115-116; 
state  of  Washington,  135. 

For-mo'sa,  277,  308. 

Fort  Wil'liam,  160. 

Fo'rum,  Rome,  244. 

France,  210-215;  early  set- 
tlements in  North  Am- 
erica, 55;  possessions  in 
Africa,  296;  trade  of 
United  States  with,  309. 

Freezing  point,  15. 

French  Gui-a'na,  195. 

Frigid  zones,  41-46. 

Frost,  15. 

Fruits,  Alberta,  157;  Aus- 
tralia, 285,  286;  CaUfor- 
nia,  132;  Canada,  157, 
158;  Central  America  and 
West  Indies,  168,  172; 
Ecuador,  179;  Egypt, 
297;  France,  211;  Hun- 
gary, 252;  island  depend- 
encies of  United  States, 
147;  Italy,  246;  Mexico, 
165;  Michigan,  90;  North- 
eastern States,  81 ;  north- 
em  Africa,  296;  Ohio,  98; 
Pacific  Northwest,  136; 
South  Africa,  298;  south- 
ern California,  140; 
Southern  States,  106; 
Spain  and  Portugal,  238; 
Switzerland,  223;  Utah, 
126;  Washington  (state), 
135. 

Fuel,  as  a  necessity,  2;  im- 
portance of  coal  as,  77-78. 

Furniture,  of  pioneers,  17. 

Fumitixre  making,  Grand 
Rapids,  86. 

Furs,  sealskin,  145;  Siberia, 
264. 

Gai'i-Iee,  Sea  of,  264. 

Gai'ves-ton  (Texas),  114, 
156. 

Gfin'ges  River,  267,  268. 

Gardeners,  3. 

Garden  of  the  Gods,  Colo- 
rado, 124. 

Ga'ry  (Ind.),  92,  93. 

Gas,  natural,  77-78,  115. 

Ge-ne'va,  223. 

Gen'6-a,  245,  246-247. 

Geor'gi-a,  58. 

Ger'ma-ny,  215-219. 

Geysers,  New  Zealand,  286; 
Yellowstone  Park,  134. 

Gi-bral'tar,  242,  291. 

Gibraltar,  Strait  of,  239. 

Gla'cier  National  Park, 
142. 

Glaciers,  Alaska,  143,  144; 
New  Zealand,  286;  Swit- 
zerland, 219,  222. 

Glfis'gow  {or  -ko),  198,  202. 

Glass  making,  Belgium, 
226;  Pittsburgh,  78. 

Glassware,  Czecho-Slova- 
kia, 250;  Venice,  245. 

Glouces'ter  (Mass.),  82. 

Go'bi,  Desert  of,  274. 


318 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Gold,  Alaska,  144;  Austra- 
lia, 286;  California,  121- 
122;  Colorado,  126;  Mex- 
ico, 165;  South  Africa, 
298,  299;  Washington 
(state),  135. 

Golden  Gate,  San  Francisco 
harbor,  132,  133. 

Gon 'do-las,  245. 

Goth  'en-burg  (got'en-bftrg) , 
229. 

Government,  27-31;  local, 
29;  reason  for,  27;  state, 
29-30;  United  States,  30- 
31. 

Governor  of  state,  30. 

Grains,  Argentina,  187; 
Australia,  284-285;  Cali- 
fornia, 132;  Canada,  157; 
Chile,  185;  China,  272; 
Czecho-Slovakia,  252; 
East  Indies,  287;  Egypt, 
297;  France,  211;  Ger- 
many, 216;  Great  Brit- 
ain, 207;  India,  267; 
Italy,  245;  Kongo  region, 
301;  Mexico,  165;  Neth- 
erlands, 225;  North  Cen- 
tral States,  92-93,  96; 
Nonvay,  229;  Pacific 
Northwest,  136;  Russia, 
232;  Siberia,  264;  South 
Africa,  298;  southwestern 
Asia,  262;  Utah,  126; 
Washington  (state),  135. 

Gra-na'da,  239. 

Grand  Can 'yon  of  the  Colo- 
rado, 139. 

Grand  Rap'ids  (Mich.),  86. 

Grapefruit,  Florida,  107; 
Southern  States,  106. 

Grapes,  Australia,  285;  Bul- 
garia, 253;  California, 
132 ;  Canada,  157 ;  France, 
211,  213;  Greece,  253; 
Hungary,  252;  Italy,  245; 
Michigan,  90;  Northeast- 
ern States,  81 ;  Spain,  238. 

Grass,  Great  Britain,  207; 
Netherlands,  225;  North 
Central  States,  97. 

Gravity,  38. 

Great  American  Desert, 
121,  125. 

Great  Brit'ain,  trade  of 
United  States  with,  309. 
See  British  Isles. 

Great  Dipper,  33. 

Great  Lakes,  73,  75,  78; 
importance  as  transpor- 
tation system,  156; 
steamers  on,  84. 

Great  Plains,  96,  123,  134. 

Great  Pyramid,  291. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  122,  126, 
127,  257. 

Great  Valley  of  Cal-i-for'- 
ni-a,  132. 

Greece,  248,  253-254. 

Gua-dal-quiv'ir  River  (gad- 
al-kwiv'er),  237,  238.  " 

Gua-te-ma'la  City  (ga-te- 
ma'la),  170. 


Guay-a-quil'     (gwi-a-kel'), 

179. 
Guayaquil,  Gulf  of,  179. 
Gui-a'na,  195. 

Hague,  The,  224. 
Hail,  15. 
Hai'ti,  171. 

Halibut.    See  Fisheries. 
Hall'stadt,  249. 
Ham'barg,  215,  218,  224. 
Hamp'ton,  198. 
Harbors,  50-51. 
Har-dang'er  Fiord,  228. 
Hardwoods,     Southern 

States,  116. 
Hat   manufacturing,    Flor- 

GiiCG  244 
Ha-vSn'a,  161,  168,  169. 
Havre  (ha'ver),  210. 
Ha-wai'ian    Islands,    133, 

146,  147,  276,  288. 
Hay,    Russia,     232.      See 

Hel-sing-fors',  229,  234. 
Hem'i-spheres,  46. 
Hemp,  Cuba,  170;  Philip- 
pine  Islands,    147,    148; 

Russia,  232. 
Herring.    See  Fisheries. 
Hib'bing  (Minn.),  90. 
Hides,  Australia,  286;  South 

America,  192. 
Highlands,  66. 
Highways,  22;  rivers  as,  22- 

25. 
Hills,  10. 
Hi-mS'la-y^    Mountains, 

258 
Hin-dus,  266-267. 
Hoi 'land,  224-226. 
Ho'ly  Land,  262. 
Homespun,  17. 
Hon-du'ras.  British,  171. 
Hong'kong',  272,  273. 
H6-n6-lu'lu,  146,  147. 
Hood,  Mt.,' 137,  141. 
Hops,  Czecho-Slovakia,  252. 
Horn,  Cape,  186. 
Horses,  North  Central 

States,  95. 
Houses,  in  frigid  zones,  43; 

need  for,  1-2;  of  pioneers, 

17. 
Hous'ton  (Texas),  102, 106, 

119. 
Hudson  River,  71, 72, 73, 75. 
Hun'ga-ry,  250. 
Hu'ron,  Lake,  86. 
Hurricanes,   West    Indies, 

170. 

Icebergs,  49. 

I'da-ho,  122. 

Ig'loo,  Eskimo  hut,  43,  46. 

il-U-nois'    (noi'   or  noiz'), 

28,  92,  96. 
Immigrants,  74. 
In'cas,  184. 
India,    35,    257,    266-269; 

trade  with  United  States, 

309. 
in-di-an'a,  96. 


In'di-an-ap'6-lis  (Ind.),  95, 
119. 

Indian  Ocean,  48. 

Indians,  36;  Mexico,  167; 
New  Mexico  and  Ari- 
zona, 139;  Peru,  178, 184; 
South  America,  178. 

Indigo,  East  Indies,  287. 

In'do-Chi'na,  266-269. 

I'6-wa,  122. 

I-qui'que  (e-ke'ka),  184. 

I-qui'tos,  191. 

Ire 'land,  208-209;  trade  of 
United  States  with,  309. 
See  British  Isles. 

I'rish  Sea,  208. 

ir-kutsk',  265. 

Iron  manufacturing,  78; 
Belgium,  226;  Birming- 
ham, Ala.,  115;  Chicago, 
92;  effect  on  density  of 
population,  153-154; 
France,  212;  Germany, 
217;  Great  Britain,  203, 
206;  Northeastern  States, 
78;  Poland,  235. 

Iron  ore,  Belgium,  226; 
Cuba,  170;  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia, 249;  France,  212; 
Germany,  217;  Great 
Britain,  203;  Lake  Supe- 
rior region,  87;  Mexico, 
165;  Michigan,  87;  Min- 
nesota, 78,  87,  90;  New 
York  State,  78;  Ontario, 
159;  Pennsylvania,  78; 
relation  to  population, 
153;  Russia,  231;  Scandi- 
navia, 229;  Spain  and 
Portugal,  238. 

Ir-ri-ga'tion,  Chile,  185; 
China,  275;  Colorado', 
125-126;  Ganges  Valley, 
268;  Italy,  245;  Japan, 
278;  southern  California, 
140;  Spain,  238. 

It-a'li-ans,  in  Argentina, 
187. 

it'a-ly,  242-247;  posses- 
sions in  Africa,  296. 

Ivory,  Kongo  region,  301. 

Jack'son-ville    (Fla.),   101, 

119. 
Ja-mai'ca,  168,  169,  171. 
Japanese  Empire,  276-278; 

trade  with  United  States, 

308. 
Ja'va,  287. 

Jersey  City  (N.  J.),  74. 
Je-ru'sa-lem,  259,  262. 
Jewelry    manufactures, 

Switzerland,  223. 
Jews,    among    immigrants 

to  New  York,  74. 
Jo-han'nes-burg   (yo-han'- 

nes-burg),  298,  299. 
Jor'don  River,  264. 
Jugosla'via    (yu-go-sla'vi- 

a),  251,  252^253. 
Ju-neau'     (joo-no'),     143- 

144. 
Ju'ra  Moimtains,  223. 


KS'fir  com,  130. 
Kangaroos,  283. 
Kan'sas,  95,  96. 
Kansas  City  (Mo.),  94. 
Kar'nak,  Temple  of,  296. 
Kay'aks  (ki'aks),42. 
Kerosene  oil,  78. 
Khi'va,  265. 
Kiel  Canal,  218,  230. 
Kil-lar'ney  Lakes,  208-  209. 
Kim'ber-ley,  299. 
Kings'ton,  168, 169. 
Kod-iak'  Island,  145. 
Kon'go  River,  294,  300. 
K6-re'a,  277. 
Krem'lin,  232. 

Lace  making,  Venice,  245. 

Lakes,  the  largest,  313. 

Land  of  the  Midnight  Sim, 
227. 

Lar'a-mie  (Wyo.),  122. 

Las'sa,  2.59. 

Lat'in  A-mer'i-ca,  trade  of 
United  States  with,  306- 
307. 

Latitude  and  longitude,  47. 

Lat'vi-a,  235. 

Laws,  27. 

Lead,  Colorado,  126;  Mex- 
ico, 165;  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal, 238;  Washington 
(state),  135. 

Lead'ville  (Colo.),  126. 

Leather  manufactures,  2; 
New  England,  79;  St. 
Louis,  95. 

Leeds,  206. 

Legislatures,  30. 

Leip'zig  (lip'sik),215. 

Lemons,  Egypt,  297;  Flor- 
ida, 107;  France,  211; 
Italy,  243,  246;  southern 
California,  140;  Southern 
States,  106;  Spain,  238. 

Le'6-pold-ville,  300. 

Les'ser  An-til'les,  170. 

Lev'ees,  116-117. 

Life-saving  stations,  53. 

Lighters,  71,  72. 

Lighthouses,  51. 

Lightships,  52. 

Li'ma,  183. 

Limes,  Florida,  107;  South- 
ern States,  106.  See 
Fruits. 

Linen  manufacture,  2,  21; 
France,  212;  Ireland,  208. 

Lis'bon,  237. 

Lith-u-a'ni-a,  235. 

Liv'er-pool,  198,  202. 

Lobsters.    See  Fisheries. 

Local  questions,  voting  on, 
29. 

Locks,  canal,  86,  87;  Barge 
Canal,  73;  illustrative 
diagrams,  86;  Panama 
Canal,  148,  149. 

Lodz,  235. 

Lon'don,  197,  198-199,  202. 

Long  Island,  71. 

Long-leaf  pine,  116. 

Longshoremen,  72. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


319 


Lds  An'g61-6s  {or  fin'jfil-es), 
139,  140,  141. 

Lou-ise',  Lake,  159. 

Lou-i-si-fi'na  {or  &'na),  104, 
i05,  115. 

Lou'is-ville  (Ky.),  119. 

Louvre  (loovr'),  211. 

Low  Countries,  The,  224, 
See  Netherlands,  The. 

Lu-ceme',  Lake,  222,  223. 

Liunber,  chief  source  of 
supply,  154.  See  For- 
ests and  forest  products. 

Ly-on',  213,  214. 

Mac-ad 'am  pavement,  22. 

Mackerel  fishing.  See  Fish- 
©riGS. 

McKin'ley.Mt.  (ma-kin'li), 
144. 

Ma-drid',  238,  239. 

Mag-da-le'na  River,  182. 

Ma-gel'lan,  explorer,  36. 

Magellan,  Strait  of,  185-186. 

Magnetism,  33. 

Main  River  {or  min),  219. 

Maine,  158,  160. 

Mal'a-ga,  238. 

Ma-lay'  Peninsula,  266, 
267. 

Ma-na'os  (ma-na'oosh), 
191,  192. 

Min'ches-ter,  202,  206. 

Manchester  Ship  Canal, 
202, 206.  _ 

Man-chu  'ri-a  (man-choo  '- 
ri-a),  274,  277. 

Min-hat'ton  Island,  70,  71. 

Ma-nil'a,  146,  147,  148. 

Man-i-to'ba,  160. 

Manufactiires,  Austria,  250; 
Belgium,     226;     British 
Isles,  203,  206-207,  208; 
Canada,    159;    Chicago, 
92;  China,  269;  France, 
212-213;  Germany,  217- 
218;  Ireland,  208;  Italy, 
245,    246;    Japan,    278; 
New     England,     78-79; 
New  York  City,  73-74; 
North  Central  States,  84- 
85;  Northeastern  States 
74,   78-79;  Poland,  235 
Russia,  232,  234;  South 
ern      States,       114-115 
southwestern  Asia,  262 
Switzerland,     222,     223 
Western  States,  126,  135! 

Manufacturing,  beginning 
of,  18-19;  development 
of,  19;  difference  among 
states  in,  78-79;  impor- 
tance as  an  occupation, 
73-74,  76;  importance  in 
New  York  City,  73;  in- 
fluence on  development 
of  cities,  19;  relation  to 
density  of  population, 
154. 

Maps,  directions  on,  33-34; 
how  drawn,  32;  how  to 
study,  174;  physical,  66, 
174;   political,    68,    174; 


relief,  66,  174;  scale  on, 
32-33;  used  by  sea  cap- 
tains, 52. 

Marble,  244,  245. 

Mar-quette'  (Mich.),  87. 

Mar-seille'  (mar-sa'y  or 
mar-sal'),  213,  214. 

Mfir-ti-nique',  170. 

Mar'y-land,  58,  81. 

Mas-sa-chu'setts,  55,  58, 
75,  79. 

Mayor,  office  of,  30. 

Meat  packing.Buenos  Aires, 
188;  Chicago,  93;  St. 
Louis,  95;  St.  Paul,  95; 
San  Francisco,   133. 

Med'K-ter-ra'ne-on  Sea, 
211,  214,  248,  251,  253, 
295,  296. 

Mel-a-spi'na  Glacier,  144. 

Mem'phis  (Tenn.),   116. 

Men-do'za,  186,  187. 

Mercury,  165,  238. 

Mes-6-p6-ta'mi-a,  263. 

Metal  goods,  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia,  249 ;  Germany,  217; 
New  England,  78. 

Mex'i-c6,  55,  161-167. 

Mexico  City,  161,  164. 

Mexico,  Gulf  of,  166. 

Mi-am'i  (Fla.),  101. 

Mich'i-gan,  86. 

Michigan,  Lake,  91. 

Mil 'on  {or  mil-Sn'),  246. 

Miles  City  (Mont.),  134. 

Milk,  2.  See  Dairying. 

MilTet,  Egypt,  297;  India, 
267. 

Mn-wau'kee  (Wis.),  90. 

Minerals  and  mining,  Alas- 
ka, 144;  Australia,  286; 
Belgium,  226;  Canada, 
159;  Colorado,  126;  Cuba, 
170;  France,  212;  Great 
Britain,  203;  Mexico,  165; 
Montana,  135;  North 
Central  States,  87,  90; 
Peru,  183;  relation  be- 
tween density  of  popula- 
tion and,  153;  Siberia, 
264;  South  Africa,  299; 
South  America,  184; 
southern  California,  140; 
Spain  and  Portugal,  238; 
Washington  (state),  135. 

Min-ne-Sp'6-Us  (Minn.), 
94,  95,  250;  Odessa  com- 
pared with,  234. 

Min-ne-s6'ta,  90,  96. 

Mis-sis-sip 'pi  (state),  116. 

Mississippi  River,  22, 55, 76, 
93,  116-118. 

Mis-sou 'ri  (state),  93,  94. 

Missouri  River,  93. 

Mixed  farming.  North  Cen- 
tral States,  98-99;  South- 
ern States,  107,  110-111. 

Mo-bUe'  (Ala.)  (mo-bel'), 
119. 

Mo'cha,  262. 

Mo-ham 'med-ans,  296. 

Mo'hawk  River,  73. 

Molasses,  110. 


M61-len'd6, 184. 

M6n-g6'U-a,  274. 

M6-n6n'-ga-he  la  River,  76. 

Mon-ta'na,  121, 134. 

M6n-te-vi-de'6,  187. 

M6nt-g6m'er-y  (Ala.),  102. 

M6nt-re-al',  55,  58,  158, 
159,  160,  306. 

Mor'mons,  126. 

M6-r6c'c6,  214,  295,  296. 

Mos'cow,  230, 232-234. 

Mosques,  296. 

Mountains,  height  of  prin- 
cipal, 313. 

Moving-picture  industry, 
139,  140. 

Mules,  95. 

Mxmimies,  297. 

Mu'nich,215. 

Mur'ray  River  (mtir'ry), 
284,  285. 

Na'ples,  242-243,  246. 

Naples,  Bay  of,  243. 

Nish'ville  (Tenn.),  116. 

Nas'sau  (nas's^),  168,  169. 

Natural  gas,  77-78;  South- 
ern States,  115. 

Naval  stores,  116. 

Ne-brSs'ka,  96,  123. 

Ne'groes,  Africa,  40,  295; 
Southern  States,  105-106. 

Neth'er-lands,  The,  224- 
227;  East  Indian  posses- 
sions, 288. 

Ne-va'da,  136. 

Ne'va  River,  234. 

New'ark(N.J.)  (nu'erk),74. 

New  Bruns'wick,  157. 

New  En 'gland,  96;  manu- 
facturing in,  78-79. 

New'foimd-land  (nu'fund- 
land),  58,  160-161. 

New  Guin'ea  (gin'e),  288. 

New  Himp 'shire,  58,  79. 

New  Jer'sey,  58,  71,  74,  81. 

New  Mex'i-c6, 139. 

New  Or^le-ans,  22,  55,  58, 
101,  102,  113,  116-119, 
156,  172. 

New  South  Wales,  285. 

New  Spain,  55. 

Newspapers,  New  York 
City,  71. 

Newsprint,  wood  pulp  for, 
159. 

New  World,  36,  46;  rank  of 
United  States  in,  303. 

New  York  Central  Railroad, 
73. 

New  York  City,  66,  67-74. 

New  York  Harbor,  51,  70, 
71, 72, 74. 

New  York  State,  58,  81. 

New  Zea'land  (ze'land), 
286;  area  and  population, 
310. 

Ni-Sg'a-ra  Falls,  77,  84; 
power  supplied  by,  78. 

Niagara  River,  84. 

Nickel,  159. 

Ni'ger  River,  294. 

Nile  River,  294,  297-298. 


Nish,  253. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  Chile,  184, 
185. 

Nor'folk  (Va.),  119. 

N6rth  A-mer'i-ca,  55-175; 
Canada  and  Newfound- 
land, 156-161;  Central 
America  and  West  Indies, 
168-175;  countries,  55- 
67;  dependencies  of  Unit- 
ed States,  143-149;  Mexi- 
co, 161-167;  North  Cen- 
tral States,  84-101; 
Northeastern  States,  67- 
83;  South  America  com- 
pared with,  177; Southern 
States,  101-120;  statis- 
tics of  area  and  popula- 
tion, 310"  Western  States, 
120-142. 

North  Cape,  227,  228. 

North  Car-6-U'na,  58,  101, 
103,  104,  113,  116. 

North  Central  States,  84- 
101. 

North  Da-ko'ta,  9 

Northeastern  States,  67-83. 

North  Pole,  38,  41. 

North  Sea,  202,  203,  219, 
229. 

North  Star,  33,  39. 

NSr'way,  227-230. 

No'treDame'  (no'tr*  dam')» 
church,  211. 

No'va  Sc6'ti-a,  157,158,198. 

Nuts,  Brazil,  191;  southern 
California,   140. 

O-a'hu  Island,  147. 

Oak'land  (Cal.),  123,  132. 

O'a-ses,  291. 

Oats,  Argentina,  187;  Cali- 
fornia, 132;  Canada,  157; 
Czecho  -  Slovakia,  252; 
France,  211;  Germany, 
216;  Great  Britain,  207; 
Netherlands,  225;  North 
Central  States,  93;  Rus- 
sia, 232. 

Ocean  liners,  48. 

Ocean  movements,  49. 

Oceans,  11-12, 48-49 ;  depth, 
48-49;  food  from,  82. 

0-des'sa,  233,  234,  250, 
259. 

5g'de'n  (Utah),  122. 

O-hi'6,  96;  farming  in, 
98-99. 

Ohio  River,  22,  76,  94 

Ohio  Valley,  9. 

Oil.     See  Petroleum. 

Oil  refining,  California,  140. 

5k-la-ho'ma,  115. 

Oklahoma  City  (Okla.),150. 

Old  World,  36,  46. 

Olives,  Bulgaria,  253 
France,  211;  Greece,  253 
Italy,  243,  244,  246 
northern  Africa,  296 
southern  California,  140 
southwestern  Asia,  262 
Spain,  238. 

0 'ma-he  (Neb.),  120,  123 


320 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Onions,  Spain,  238;  Si- 
beria, 264.  See  Vege- 
tables. 

On-ta'ri-6,  Lake,  84,  132. 

Ontario,  province  of,  158, 
159. 

Opium,  Malay  Peninsula, 
267.  _ 

O-por'to  (6-p6r'too),  237. 

Oranges,  California,  121, 
132;  Central  America  and 
West  Indies,  172;  China, 
272;  Egypt,  297;  Flor- 
ida, 106,  107;  France, 
211;  Italy,  243,  246; 
southern  California,  140; 
Southern  States,  106; 
Spain,  238. 

Or'bit  of  earth,  37-38. 

Or'e-gon,  136,  137. 

O-ri-no'co  River,  313. 

0-ri-za'ba,  Mt.,  313. 

6-r6'ya,  183. 

Ostriches,  South  Africa, 
298. 

5s-we'g6  (N.  Y.),  84. 

5t'ta-wa,  160. 

Overland  Trail,  122. 

Oyster  fisheries,  82-83. 

Pa-cif' ic  islands,  58,  288. 
Pacific  Northwest,  136-138. 
Pacific  Ocean,  48. 
Pack  trains,  21. 
Pai'es-tine,  259,  262,  263. 
Palm  Beach  (Fla.),  101. 
Pan-a-ma'  (city),  148. 
Panama,   Isthmus   of,   55, 

146. 
Panama,  Republic  of,  55, 

146. 
Panama    Canal,    55,    146, 

147-149,  178. 
Panama  hats,  Ecuador,  179, 

182. 
Paper  manufacttire,  Japan, 

278 
Pa-ra',  190,  191,  192. 
Pa'-ra-guay  {or  gwi')»  188. 
Pa-ra-na'  River,  187,  188. 
Par'is,  210-211. 
Par'the-non,  254. 
Pat'er-son  (N.  J.),  79. 
Peaches,    California,    132; 

Canada,  157;  Michigan, 

90;  Northeastern  States, 

81.   See  also  Fruits. 
Pears,       California,    132; 

Northeastern  States,  81. 
Pea'ry,  Admural  (pe'ri),  38, 

39 
Pe-k'ing'     (pe-kin'),     259, 

273,  274. 
Pe-lee',  Mt.,  170. 
Pen-in'su-las,  51. 
Penn-syl-va'ni-a,    58,    81, 

96;  coal  in,  77. 
Pepper.   See  Spices. 
Per-nam-bu'co,  190. 
Per'sia  (-shia  or  -zha),  262- 

263. 
Persian  Gulf,  263. 
Pe-ru',  183-184. 


Pet'ro-grad,  230,  233,  234, 
259. 

Pe-tro'le-um,  77-78;  Loui- 
siana, 115;  Mexico,  165; 
Oklahoma,  115;  Russia, 
231 ;  southern  California, 
140;  Southern  States, 
115;  Texas,  115. 

Phil'a-del'phi-a,  74,  75,  79. 

Phil'ip-pine  Islands,  36, 
146,  147;  imports  to 
United  States  from,  308. 

Pike's  Peak,  124. 

Pi-la'tus,  Mt.  (pe-la'to6s), 
222. 

Pilots,  53. 

Pineapples,  Florida,  106- 
107. 

Pine  trees,  Southern  States, 
116. 

Pioneers,  17. 

Pi-rae'us  (pi-re'us),253. 

Pitts'biirgh  (Pa.),  76,  84, 
96,  115;  Birmingham 
(Ala.)  compared  with, 
115;  iron  and  steel  manu- 
facturing at,  78. 

Plains,  9. 

Plantations,  Southern 
States,  110-111. 

Plant  food,  6. 

Plant  life,  Australia,  283. 
See  Vegetation. 

Plants,  value  of  soil  to,  5-6; 
water  needed  by,  11. 

Pla'ta  River,  188. 

Plateaus,  list  of  highest, 
313. 

Plums,  California,  132.  *See 
Fruits. 

Po-ca-tel'lo  (Idaho),  122. 

Po'lond,  235. 

Po'lar  zones,  41. 

Poles  of  earth,  38;  life  at, 
41-46. 

Pom-pei'i  (p6m-pa'ye),243. 

Pony  Express,  122. 

P6-p6'ca-t6'pet'l,  Mt.  (or 
-ta-petl),  164,  167. 

Population,  manufacturing 
and  density  of,  154;  rela- 
tion between  climate  and, 
303;  statistics  of,  310-313. 

Po  River,  245. 

Port  Ar'thur,  160. 

Port  au  Prmce'  (p6r-t6- 
prans'  or  p6rt-6-prins'), 
171. 

Port'Iand  (Ore.),  136,  137. 

Por'to  Ri'co,  146,  168,  171. 

Por'tii-gol,  237-239,  242. 

Postmasters,  31. 

Potatoes,  Alberta,  157;  Cal- 
ifornia, 132;  Canada,  157, 
158;  Czecho-Slovakia, 
252;  Russia,  232;  Siberia, 
264.    See  Vegetables. 

P6-t6'mac  River,  80. 

Pottery  making,  Venice, 
245. 

Poultry,  California,  132; 
Cuba,  169. 

Prague,  249-260, 251. 


Prairies,  96. 

Precious  stones,  East  In- 
dies, 288. 

President  of  United  States, 
31. 

Pri-bi-lof  Islands  (pre-be- 
lof),  145. 

Pueblo  Indians  (pweb'16), 
139. 

Pu'get  Sound,  136. 

Pullman  cars,  92. 

Pulp  mills,  159.  _ 

Pim'ta  A-re'nas  (poon'tS 
a-ra'nas),  186. 

Pyr'a-mids,  Egypt,  294, 
297.   _ 

Pyr'e-nees  Mountains,  239. 

Quarrying,  244,  245. 
Que-bec'  (city),  55,  159. 
Queens'land,  285. 
Queens 'town,  208. 
Quicksilver,   Mexico,    165; 

Spain  and  Portugal,  238. 
Qui'to    (ke'to),    179,    182, 

183. 

Railroads,  Africa,  299; 
Alaska,  144;  amount  of 
goods  carried  by,  in  Unit- 
ed States,  156;  Asia,  257- 
259;  Canada,  160;  center- 
ing at  Chicago,  91-92; 
China,  273;  India,  266; 
Mexico,  166;  Peru,  183; 
Russia,  233-234;  Spain 
and  Portugal,  237;  Trans- 
Andean  road,  186;  trans- 
continental, 133-134; 
transportation  on,  25-26. 

Raindrops,  15. 

RainfaU,  i;^,  16;  Africa,  295; 
annual,  in  North  Amer- 
ica, 151;  Argentina,  187; 
Asia,  258;  Australia,  283, 
284,  285;  California,  132; 
East  Indies,  287;  effect 
on  distribution  of  popu- 
lation in  United  States, 
151;  Europe,  195;  Ger- 
many, 215-216;  India, 
266;  Malay  Peninsula, 
266;  Mexico,  165;  North 
Central  States,  97 ;  South 
America,  177;  Western 
States,  121,  136. 

Rai-nier',Mt.  (ra-ner'),136, 
142. 

Raisins,  Australia,  285; 
California,  132;  Spain, 
238 

Ra'm^,  262. 

Ranches,  97. 

Ranchmen,  3. 

Rapids  in  rivers,  24. 

Red  Sea,  291. 

Reefs,  49. 

Representative  govern- 
ment, 31. 

Representatives,  national, 
31;  state,  29. 

Republic,  form  of  govern- 
ment, 31. 


Rhine  River,  217,  218-219, 
224   225. 

Rhode  Island,  58,  79. 

Rhode 'sia  (ro-de'zhi-a  or 
zi-a),300. 

Rhone  River,  214. 

Rhone  Valley,  212,  213, 
214. 

Rice,  105;  California,  132; 
China,  272;  East  Indies, 
287;  Egypt,  297;  Ganges 
Valley,  268;  India,  267; 
Italy,  246;  Japan,  277, 
278;  Kongo  region,  301; 
Mexico,  165;  Southern 
States,  105;  southwest- 
ern Asia,  262;  Spain,  238. 

Rich'mond  (Va.),  106,  119. 

Rick'i-shas,  272,  277. 

Ri'ga,  236. 

Ri'gi,Mt.  (re'ge),222. 

Ri'6  de  Ja-nei'ro  (zha-na'- 
ro),  189,  190. 

Ri'6  Gran'de,  166. 

Rivers,  hst  of  largest,  313; 
mouths  of,  23;  transpor- 
tation on,  22-25. 

River  systems,  25. 

Ri-vie'ra  (re-vya'ra),  211. 

Road-building,  22. 

Roads,  21;  China,  274;  lack 
of,  in  South  America 
182-183;  Mexico,  166 
North  Central  States,  97 
replaced  by  railroads,  26 
West  Indies,  168. 

Rock,  soil  formed  by  decay 
of,  4-5. 

Rock'y  Motmtains,  123; 
Canadian,  159. 

Rome,  242,  243-244. 

Ron'da,  238. 

Roots  of  plants,  6. 

R6-sa'ri-6,  187,  189. 

Rose  growing,  Bulgaria, 
252. 

Rotation  of  crops,  99. 

Rotation  of  earth,  37. 

Rot'ter-dam,  224,  225. 

Rubber,  Brazil,  191,  192; 
Central  America  and 
West  Indies,  172;  East 
Indies,  287,  288;  Malay 
Peninsula,  267;  Mexico, 
165. 

Rug  making,  Bokhara  and 
Khiva,  265;  Philadelphia, 
79;  Smyrna,  262;  south- 
western Asia,  262. 

Ru-ma'ni-a,  253. 

Ris'sia,  230-259. 

Rye,  California,  132;  Can- 
ada, 157;  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia, 252;  France,  211; 
Germany,  216;  Great 
Britain,  207;  Nether- 
lands, 225;  North  Cen- 
tral States,  93;  Russia, 
232;  Southern  States, 
103;  Spain  and  Portugal, 
238;  Washington  (state), 
135. 

Rye  bread,  216. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


321 


Saar  Valley  (zSr),  213. 
Sac-ra-men'to  (Cal.),  122. 
Sacramento  Valley,  9. 
Sagebrush,  131, 132. 
SSg'inaw  (Mich.),  86. 
Saginaw  Bay,  86. 
Sa-ha'ra  Des'ert,  291,  296. 
St.  An'tho-ny,  Falls  of,  94. 
St.  Au'gus-tine  (Fla.),  101. 
St.  Joseph  (Mo.),  122. 
St.  Law'rence,  Gulf  of,  160. 
St.    Lawrence    River,    55, 

157,  160. 
St.  Lou'is  (Mo.)  (-loo'is  or 

loo'i),  58,  93,  95. 
St.     Ma'ry's     River     and 

Falls,  86. 
St.  Mi'chael  (Alaska)  (mi'- 

kcl)   144. 
St.  Paul  (Minn.),  94,  95. 
St.  Pe'ter's,  Rome,  243. 
St.Pe'ters-biirg  (Fla.),  101. 
St.  Pierre'  (san'pyftr'),  170. 
St.    Thom'as    (Virgin    Is- 
lands), 172. 
Salmon   fisheries,    Alaska, 

145;   Pacific   Northwest, 

138. 
Sa-lo-ni'ki(sa-16-ne'ke),253. 
Salt  Lake  City,  126-127. 
Sal-va-dor',  170. 
San     An-to'ni-6     (Texas), 

102,  106,  119. 
San  Ber-nar-di'no  Motm- 

tains,  140. 
Sand,  4. 
Sand  dimes,  90. 
San  Di-e'go  (Cal.)  (-de-a'- 

go),  141. 
San  Fran-cis'co  (Cal.),  122, 

133. 
San   Francisco   Bay,    123, 

124,  132,  133. 
San   Ju-an'    (Porto   Rico) 

(-hoo-an'),  146,  147,  168. 
San  Sal-va-dor',  170. 
San-ti-a'go     (sSn-te-a'go), 

184-185. 
San'tos    (san'toosh),    189. 
Sao  Pau'lo  (souN  pou'loo), 

190. 
Sarsaparilla,  191. 
Sa-vSn'nah  (Ga.),  114,  119. 
Savaimahs,  Kongo   Basin, 

301. 
Sawmills,     Michigan,     86; 

Minnesota,  87. 
Scale  of  maps,  32-33. 
Scan-di-na'vi-an  coimtries, 

227-230. 
Scheldt  River  (skelt),  226. 
Schools,  of  early  settlers, 

17-18. 
Scot 'lend,  202,  203. 
Scran'ton  (Fa.),  77. 
Seal  fisheries,  145. 
Se-at'tle  (Wash.),  136. 
Sediment  in  rivers,  25. 
Seine  River  (san),  210. 
Senators,  national,  31. 
Sep'a-ra-tors,  cream,  98,99. 
Se-quoi'aNationalPark,137. 
Sev'iUe  {or  se-vil'),  239. 


Sew'ard  (Alaska),  144. 

Shang-ha'i,  272. 

Shan'tung'  Peninsula 
(shan'toongO,  277. 

Shas'ta,  Mt.,  142. 

Shawls,  southwestern  Asia, 
262. 

Sheep  raising,  2;  Alberta, 
157;  Australia,  285;  Cali- 
fornia, 132;  central  Asia, 
265;  Colorado,  125; 
Czecho-Slovakia,  252; 
France,  211;  Great  Brit- 
ain, 206,  207-208;  New 
South  Wales,  285;  Peru, 
184;  Rhodesia,  300;  Spain 
and  Portugal,  238;  world 
distribution,  308. 

Sheffield,  203. 

Shelter,  in  frigid  zones,  43; 
in  torrid  zone,  40;  ma- 
terial used  for,  2-3;  need 
for,  1-2. 

Shipbuilding,  Antwerp,  227 ; 
Glasgow,  202. 

Shoe  making,  79,  95,  159. 
Sec  Leather  manufacture. 

Si-im'  {or  se-am'),  266, 
267. 

Si-be'ri-a,  259,  264-265. 

Si-er'ra  Ne-va'da,  123, 124. 

Silk  industry,  212;  China, 
272;  France,  212-213; 
Italy,  245;  Japan,  278. 

Silk  manufacturing,  Flor- 
ence, 244;  France,  212; 
Germany,  217;  Japan, 
278;  Milan,  246;  Pater- 
son,  N.  J.,  79. 

Silkworms,  212-213. 

Si'los,  82,  95. 

Silver,  Australia,  286;  Col- 
orado, 126;  Mexico,  165; 
Peru,  183;  Spain  and 
Portugal,  238;  Washing- 
ton (state),  135. 

Sln-ga-p6re',  266. 

Si-sal'  (se-sal'),165. 

Sit'ka  spruce,  137. 

Skag'way  (Alaska),  143, 
144. 

Skars'fos,  228. 

Slopes,  necessary  in  farm- 
ing, 8. 

Smyr 'na  (smer 'na) ,  262, 263. 

Snow,  15. 

Snowfiakes,  15. 

Snow  Ime,  220. 

So'fi-a(s6'fe-ya),251. 

Soil,  carried  in  rivers,  25; 
cause  of  changes  in,  9-10; 
different  depths,  5;  fer- 
tile and  sterile,  6;  fer- 
tilizing, 7;  importance, 
1-8;  origin,  3-4;  use  for 
agriculture,  8-10;  value 
to  plants,  5-6. 

Soo  Canals,  86-87,  90. 

Sor'ghum  (sor'giim),  110, 
130. 

South  Africa,  Union  of,  298- 
299;  trade  of  United 
States  with,  307-308. 


South    America,    177-193; 

comparisons  and  con- 
trasts with  North  Amer- 
ica, 177-178;  statistics  of 
area  and  population,  310; 
trade  of  United  States 
with,  306. 

Southamp  'ton  (sflth-hSmp  '- 
tun),  198. 

South  Car-6-li'na,  58. 

South  Chi-ca'go  (111.),  92. 

South  Da-ko'ta,  96. 

Southern  Pacific  Railroad, 
122-123. 

Southern  pines,  115-116. 

Southern  States,  101-120. 

South  Platte  River,  125. 

Southwestern  Asia,  259- 
263. 

Spain  (span),  35,  237-239, 
242 ;  settlements  in  North 
America,  55. 

Spanish-American  War, 
147. 

Sphinx  (sfinks),  291,  297. 

Spice  Islands,  288. 

Spices,  East  Indies,  288; 
India,  267;  Malay  Penin- 
sula, 267. 

Spitz 'ber-gen,  230. 

Spo-kSne'  (Wash.),  134- 
135. 

Spokane  River,  135. 

Spring'field  (III.),  29. 

Stars,  telling  direction  by, 
33. 

States,  29;  number  of,  30; 
officers  of,  30. 

Steamboats,  Great  Lakes, 
84;  Mississippi  River,  76; 
on  rivers,  23;  Yukon 
River,  145. 

Steamships,  ocean,  48,  49. 

Steel  manufactiu-ing,  78; 
Belgium,  226;  Birming- 
ham (Ala.),  115;  Gary 
(Ind.),  92,  93;  Germany, 
217;  Great  Britain,  203, 
206;  Northeastern  States, 
78;  South  Chicago,  92. 

Stock'hohn,  227. 

Stock  raising,  127.  See 
Cattle  raising. 

Stockyards,  Chicago,  93; 
St.  Paul,  95. 

Stones,  decay  of,  4-5. 

Sub 'ways,  71. 

Su-dan',  299-300. 

Sudan  grass,  300. 

Su'ez  Canal,  257. 

Sugar,  beet,  Belgium,  226; 
California,  132;  Czecho- 
slovakia, 249,  252;  Ger- 
many, 216,  218;  Nether- 
lands, 225;  Utah,  127; 
world  production,  307. 

Sugar,  cane,  105;  Argen- 
.tina,  188;  Australia,  285; 
Brazil,  190;  Central 
America  and  West  In- 
dies, 172;  China,  272; 
Cuba,  168,  170,  306-307; 
East  Indies,  287;  Egypt, 


297;  Hawaiian  Islands, 
147;  island  dependencies 
of  United  States,  147; 
Kongo  region,  301;  Loui- 
siana, 104,  105;  Malay 
Peninsula,  267;  Mexico, 
165;  Southern  States, 
152;  Spain,  238;  world 
production,  307. 

Sugar  refining,  133,  147. 

Su-ma'tra,  288. 

Sun,  apparent  motion,  37; 
telling  direction  by,  34. 

Sunrise  and  sxmset,  37. 

Su-pe'ri-6r  (Wis.),  87,  90. 

Superior,  Lake,  86,  160. 

Swamps,  8. 

Swe'den,  227-230. 

Swit'zer-land,  219-223. 

Swords,  Damascus,  263. 

Syr'i-a,  259,  263. 

Ta-c6'ma  (Wash.),  136. 

Tacoma,  Mt.,  142.  See 
Rainier,  Mt. 

Ta'hoe,  Lake  {or  ta'ho), 
142. 

Tam'pa  (Fla.),  101,  119. 

Tam-pii'co,  165. 

Ta-na-na'  River,  144. 

Tar,  116. 

Tea,  China,  272;  East 
Indies,  287;  Formosa, 
308;  Ganges  Valley,  268; 
India,  267-268;  Malay 
Peninsula,  267-268. 

Temperate  zones,  41. 

Temperature.  See  Climate. 

Ten'e-ments,  70. 

Ten-nes-see',  113. 

Tex'as,  102,  103,  105,  115. 

Textile  industries,  Belgium, 
226;  Czecho-Slovakia, 
249;  France,  212;  Germany, 
217-218;  Great  Britain, 
206-207 ;  Milan,  246 ;  Mos- 
cow, 232;  New  England, 
79;  Poland,  235;  Switzer- 
land, 223.  See  Cotton, 
Silk,  and  Woolen  manu- 
facturing. 

Thames  River  (temz),  198, 
199. 

Ti-bet'  {or  tib'et),  258,  259. 

Ti'gris  River,  263. 

Tin,  Australia,  286;  Bolivia, 
184;  Spain  and  Portugal, 
238. 

Tit-i-ca'ca,  Lake,  184. 

Tobacco,  Australia,  285; 
Cuba,  170;  East  Indies, 
287;  Greece,  253;  island 
dependencies  of  United 
States,  147;  Malay  Penin- 
sula, 267;  Mexico,  165; 
New  England,  81 ;  Russia, 
232;  Southern  States, 
103-104,  110,  111;  Tur- 
key, 262. 

Tobacco  manufactures,  95. 

To'ky-o  (to'ke-o),  276. 

Tomsk,  264. 

T6-r6n't6,  159,  160,  306. 


322 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Toy  making,  Germany,  217. 

Trade,  beginning  of,  18; 
development  and  growth, 
19;  influence  on  devel- 
opment of  cities,  19 ; 
relations  of  United  States 
with  other  countries,  303- 
309. 

Trade  winds,  Brazil,  189. 

Trails,  21. 

Trans-Andean  Railway, 
183,  186. 

Transcontinental  lines,  133- 
134. 

Transportation,  20-27;  Af- 
rica, 299-300;  Alaska, 
145-146;  Argentina,  188; 
Asia,  257-259;  Brazil, 
190-191;  by  railroads, 
25-26;  by  rivers,  22-25; 
by  roads,  21-22;  Central 
America  and  West  Indies, 
172-173;  Chicago,  92; 
China,  273-274;  Ger- 
many, 218-219;  Great 
Lakes,  84,  85,  87,  90, 
91,  93,  160;  importance 
as  an  industry,  76;  im- 
portance in  New  York 
City,  72-73;  in  cities,  70- 
71,  72;  Mexico,  166;  on 
oceans,  49;  reason  for 
importance  as  occupa- 
tion, 73;  review  of  chief 
means  of,  in  United  States, 
154,  156;  South  America, 
182;  Spain  and  Portugal, 
237,  238-239. 

Trans-Si-be'ri-an  Railroad, 
258-259,  264,  265. 

Treadwell  mines,  Alaska, 
144. 

Tree  line,  220. 

Trees,  in  torrid  zone,  40; 
lacking  in  frigid  zones, 42. 

Tren'ton  (N.  J.),  74. 

Tributaries  of  rivers,  24. 

Trin-i-dad',  171. 

Tri'p6-li,  295,  296. 

Tropics,  39-40. 

Troy  (N.Y.),  73. 

Truckgardening, California 
132;  Great  Britain,  207 
North  Central  States,  98 
Northeastern  States,  81 
Southern  States,  107. 

Tu-cu-man'  (too-koo- 
man'),  188. 

Ttm-gu-ra'gua,  Mt.  (toon- 
goo-ra'gwa),  179. 

Tu'nis,  214. 

Tftr'key  in  Asia,  262-263. 

Turkey  in  Europe,  250-251. 

Turnips.  See  Vegetables. 

Turpentine,  Southern 
States,  116. 

Tux'pam  (toos'pam),  165. 

Two  Har'bors  (Minn.),  90. 

Tyr'61,  196. 

U-kraine'  (u-kran'),  235. 
Union  Pacific  Railroad,  122, 
123,  126. 


United  Fruit  Company,  171- 
173. 

United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  197. 

United  States,  55;  depend- 
encies, 143-149;  dis- 
tribution of  large  cities, 
150;  distribution  of  popu- 
lation, 149-150;  effect  of 
rainfall  on  distribution  of 
population,  151;  extent, 
66;  farming  and  its  influ- 
ence on  population,  152 ; 
farming  in  the  South, 
152;  food  production 
greatest  in  North  Central 
States,  152-153;  govern- 
ment, 30-31;  independ- 
ence secured  by,  58; 
lumber  resources,  154; 
North  Central  States, 
84-101;  Northeastern 
States,  67-83;  provisions 
for  transportation,  156; 
relations  between  indus- 
tries and  population,  153- 
154;  resemblances  be- 
tween China  and,  269, 
272;  section  of  densest 
population,  153;  South- 
ern States,  101-120; 
states  of,  58;  statistics  of 
area  and  population,  311 ; 
trade  relations  with  other 
countries,- 303-309;  value 
of  dependencies,  156; 
Western  States,  120-142. 

U'rol  Moimtains,  264. 

U-ru-guay'  (oo-roo-gwd'  or 
u'roo-gwa),  188. 

Uruguay  River,  188. 

U'tah  {or  u't&),  123. 

Vac'u-um  cleaners,  99. 

Val'dai  HiUs  (-di),  233. 

Va-len'ci-a,  238. 

Valleys,  9,  10;  difference  in 
size,  9;  followed  by  trans- 
portation routes,  26;  im- 
portance for  farming,  9. 

Val'pa-ra-i's6,  185,J86. 

Van-cou'ver  (vSn-koo'ver), 
158. 

Vancouver  Island,  143. 

Vanilla,  Brazil,  191. 

Vapor,  12;  water  changed 
to,  by  heat,  14. 

Vat'i-can,  243-244. 

Vegetables,  Argentina,  187; 
Australia,  285, 286;  Cana- 
da,157, 158  ;Central  Amer- 
ica and  West  Indies,  168; 
Chile,  185;  China,  272; 
France,  211;  Germany, 
216;  Great  Britain,  207; 
Michigan,  86;  Nether- 
lands, 225;  Northeastern 
States,  81;  Norway,  229; 
Siberia,  264;  southern 
California,  140;  Southern 
States,  107;  southwestern 
Asia,  262;  Switzerland, 
223. 


Vegetation,  in  frigid  zones, 
42;  in  torrid  zone,  40. 

Ven-e-zue'la,  177. 

V6n'ice,  245,  246. 

Ve'ra  Cruz  (va'ra  krooz  or 
vgr'akrooz),  161,164,166. 

Ver-sailles'(ver-sa'y'),  211, 
212. 

Ve-su'vi-us,  Mt.,  243. 

VIc-to'ri-a  (Australia),  285. 

Victoria  (B.  C),  158. 

Victoria  Falls,  294,  300. 

Vi-cun  'as  ( ve-koon  'y  as ) , 
184. 

Vi-en'na  (ve-en'na),  249, 
260. 

Vl'kings,  228. 

Vir-gin'i-a  (ver-jin'i-a),  55, 
58,  101,  103,  104. 

Virginia  (Minn.),  90. 

Vir'gin  Islands,  146,  171, 
172. 

Vla-di-vos-tok'  (vla-dye- 
v6s-t6k'),259,265. 

Volcanoes,  Central  Amer- 
ica and  West  Indies,  170; 
Ecuador,  179,  182;  Mex- 
ico, 164;  New  Zealand, 
286. 

Vol'ga  River,  233. 

Voting,  27-29. 

Wagon  roads,  21-22;  re- 
placed by  railroads,  26. 
See  Roads. 

Wales,   207.      See   British 

War'saw,  235. 

Wa-satch'  Mountains  (w6- 
sach'),  123. 

Wash'ing-ton,  George 
(wosh'ing-tun),  58. 

Washington  (D.  C),  30, 
79-80. 

Washington,  Mt.,  123. 

Washington  (state),  135, 
136,  137,  138. 

Watch  making,  Switzer- 
land, 223. 

Water,  amount  of,  com- 
pared with  land,  12; 
needed  by  plants,  6. 

Waterfalls,  24. 

Water  power,  78;  from 
Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  94; 
from  Niagara  Falls,  78; 
in  northern  Italy,  246; 
Southern  States,  115. 

Watersheds,  9. 

Water  vapor,  13. 

Weather  records,  15-16. 

Wel'land  Canal,  84. 

Wel'ling-ton,  Mt.,  284. 

Western  States,  120-142. 

West  in'dies,  168-173. 

West'mm-ster  Ab'bey,  202. 

West  Vir-gin'i-a,  106. 

Wharves,  50. 

Wheat,  2;  area  for  raising, 
in  United  States,  96; 
Argentina,  187;  Austra- 
lia, 284-285,  286;  CaU- 
fomia,  132;  Canada,  157; 


China,  272;  Colorado, 
130,  131;  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia,  252;  Egypt,  297; 
France,  211;  Germany, 
216;  Hungary,  252;  In- 
dia, 267;  Italy,  243,  245; 
Kansas,  96;  Mexico,  165; 
Netherlands,  225;  North 
Central  States,  93,  100; 
northern  Africa,  296; 
Odessa,  234;  region  of 
greatest  growth,  153; 
Russia,  232;  Saskatche- 
wan, 157;  Siberia,  264; 
Southern  States,  103; 
Spain  and  Portugal,  238; 
Washington  (state),  135; 
world  acreage,  307. 

White  Horse,  144. 

White  House,  31,  80. 

White  Moxmtains,  123. 

Whit'ney,  Eli,  112. 

Wig 'warns,  Indian,  2-3. 

Wilkes '-Bar-re  (Pa.),  77. 

Wil-la'mette  River,  136. 

Wa'ming-ton  (Del.),  75. 

Winds,  11-16;  cause  of,  12- 
13;  use  of,  12. 

Wine  making,  Australia, 
285;  France,  213;  Ger- 
many, 216,  218;  Spain, 
238. 

Win'ni-peg,  159. 

Wis-con'sin,  90. 

Wood  pulp,  Alaska,  144 
Canada,  159. 

Wool,  2,  20;  Argentina,  306 
Australia,  285,  286;  cen- 
tral Asia,  265;  Chile,  306, 
Peru,  184;  United  States, 
125,  132.  ^ee  also  Sheep 
raising. 

Woolen  manufacture,  Bel- 
gium, 226;  France,  212; 
Germany,  217;  Great 
Britain,  206;  Milan,  246; 
United  States,  79. 

Wool 'worth  Buildmg,  67. 

World  War,  251,  263;  ef- 
fects on  Russia,  234;  re- 
sults in  Balkan  region, 
248-249;  Turkish  losses, 
251,  263. 

Wy-o'ming,  123,  134. 

Yang'tse  River,  273. 
Yellow  fever,  118. 
Yel 'low-stone  Park,  134. 
Yellowstone  River,  134. 
Yen-e-se'i    River    (yen-e- 

sa'e),264. 
Y6-k6-ha'ma,  276. 
Y6-sem'i-te  Valley,  137. 
Youngs'town  (Ohio)  (y  iingz  '- 

toun),  84, 85. 
Yu-ca-tan',  165,  166. 
Yti'kon  River,  144-145. 

Zam-be'zi  River  (zam-ba'- 

ze),  294,  299. 
Zinc,  238. 

Zones  of  the  earth,  39-42. 
Zu'rich(zoo'rik),223. 


JrTinted  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


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